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The Dominion of the Air

by J. M. Bacon

March, 1997  [Etext #861]


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The Dominion of the Air: The Story of Aerial Navigation
by Rev. J. M. Bacon



CHAPTER I.  THE DAWN OF AERONAUTICS.


"He that would learn to fly must be brought up to the constant
practice of it from his youth, trying first only to use his
wings as a tame goose will do, so by degrees learning to rise
higher till he attain unto skill and confidence."

So wrote Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, who was reckoned a man of
genius and learning in the days of the Commonwealth.  But so
soon as we come to inquire into the matter we find that this
good Bishop was borrowing from the ideas of others who had gone
before him; and, look back as far as we will, mankind is
discovered to have entertained persistent and often plausible
ideas of human flight.  And those ideas had in some sort of
way, for good or ill, taken practical shape.  Thus, as long ago
as the days when Xenophon was leading back his warriors to the
shores of the Black Sea, and ere the Gauls had first burned
Rome, there was a philosopher, Archytas, who invented a pigeon
which could fly, partly by means of mechanism, and partly also,
it is said, by aid of an aura or spirit.  And here arises a
question.  Was this aura a gas, or did men use it as
spiritualists do today, as merely a word to conjure with?

Four centuries later, in the days of Nero, there was a man in
Rome who flew so well and high as to lose his life thereby. 
Here, at any rate, was an honest man, or the story would not
have ended thus; but of the rest--and there are many who in
early ages aspired to the attainment of flight--we have no more
reason to credit their claims than those of charlatans who
flourish in every age.

In medieval times we are seriously told by a saintly writer
(St. Remigius) of folks who created clouds which rose to heaven
by means of "an earthen pot in which a little imp had been
enclosed."  We need no more.  That was an age of flying saints,
as also of flying dragons.  Flying in those days of yore may
have been real enough to the multitude, but it was at best
delusion.  In the good old times it did not need the genius of
a Maskelyne to do a "levitation" trick.  We can picture the
scene at a "flying seance."  On the one side the decidedly
professional showman possessed of sufficient low cunning; on
the other the ignorant and highly superstitious audience, eager
to hear or see some new thing--the same audience that, deceived
by a simple trick of schoolboy science, would listen to
supernatural voices in their groves, or oracular utterances in
their temples, or watch the urns of Bacchus fill themselves
with wine.  Surely for their eyes it would need no more than
the simplest phantasmagoria, or maybe only a little black
thread, to make a pigeon rise and fly.

It is interesting to note, however, that in the case last cited
there is unquestionably an allusion to some crude form of
firework, and what more likely or better calculated to impress
the ignorant!  Our firework makers still manufacture a "little
Devil."  Pyrotechnic is as old as history itself; we have an
excellent description of a rocket in a document at least as
ancient as the ninth century.  And that a species of pyrotechny
was resorted to by those who sought to imitate flight we have
proof in the following recipe for a flying body given by a
Doctor, eke a Friar, in Paris in the days of our King John:--

"Take one pound of sulphur, two pounds of willowcarbon, six
pounds of rock salt ground very fine in a marble mortar. 
Place, when you please, in a covering made of flying papyrus to
produce thunder.  The covering in order to ascend and float
away should be long, graceful, well filled with this fine
powder; but to produce thunder the covering should be short,
thick, and half full."

Nor does this recipe stand alone.  Take another sample, of
which chapter and verse are to be found in the MSS. of a
Jesuit, Gaspard Schott, of Palermo and Rome, born three hundred
years ago:--

"The shells of hen-eggs, if properly filled and well secured
against the penetration of the air, and exposed to solar rays,
will ascend to the skies and sometimes suffer a natural change. 
And if the eggs of the larger description of swans, or leather
balls stitched with fine thongs, be filled with nitre, the
purest
sulphur quicksilver, or kindred materials which rarify by
their caloric energy, and if they externally resemble pigeons,
they will easily be mistaken for flying animals."

Thus it would seem that, hunting back in history, there were
three main ideas on which would-be aeronauts of old exercised
their ingenuity.  There was the last-mentioned method, which,
by the way, Jules Verne partly relies on when he takes his
heroes to the moon, and which in its highest practical
development may be seen annually on the night of "Brock's
Benefit" at the Crystal Palace.  There is, again, the "tame
goose" method, to which we must return presently; and, lastly,
there is a third method, to which, as also to the brilliant
genius who conceived it, we must without further delay be
introduced.  This may be called the method of "a hollow globe."

Roger Bacon, Melchisedeck-fashion, came into existence at
Ilchester in 1214 of parentage that is hard to trace.  He was,
however, a born philosopher, and possessed of intellect and
penetration that placed him incalculably ahead of his
generation.  A man of marvellous insight and research, he
grasped, and as far as possible carried out, ideas which dawned
on other men only after centuries.  Thus, many of his utterances
have been prophetic.  It is probable that among his chemical
discoveries he re-invented gunpowder.  It is certain that he
divined the properties of a lens, and diving deep into
experimental and mechanical sciences, actually foresaw the time
when, in his own words, "men would construct engines to traverse
land and water with great speed and carry with them persons and
merchandise."  Clearly in his dreams Bacon saw the Atlantic not
merely explored, but on its bosom the White Star liners breaking
records, contemptuous of its angriest seas.  He saw, too, a
future Dumont circling in the air, and not only in a dead calm,
but holding his own with the feathered race.  He tells his
dream thus:  "There may be made some flying instrument so that
a man sitting in the middle of the instrument and turning some
mechanism may put in motion some artificial wings which may
beat the air like a bird flying."

But he lived too long before his time.  His ruin lay not only
in his superior genius, but also in his fearless outspokenness. 
He presently fell under the ban of the Church, through which he
lost alike his liberty and the means of pursuing investigation. 
Had it been otherwise we may fairly believe that the "admirable
Doctor," as he was called, would have been the first to show
mankind how to navigate the air.  His ideas are perfectly easy
to grasp.  He conceived that the air was a true fluid, and as
such must have an upper limit, and it would be on this upper
surface, he supposed, as on the bosom of the ocean, that man
would sail his air-ship.  A fine, bold guess truly.  He would
watch the cirrus clouds sailing grandly ten miles above him on
some stream that never approached nearer.  Up there, in his
imagination, would be tossing the waves of our ocean of air. 
Wait for some little better cylinders of oxygen and an improved
foot-warmer, and a future Coxwell will go aloft and see; but as
to an upper sea, it is truly there, and we may visit and view
its sun-lit tossing billows stretching out to a limitless
horizon at such times as the nether world is shrouded in densest
gloom.  Bacon's method of reaching such an upper sea as he
postulated was, as we have said, by a hollow globe.

"The machine must be a large hollow globe, of copper or other
suitable metal, wrought extremely thin so as to have it as
light as possible," and "it must be filled with ethereal air or
liquid fire."  This was written in the thirteenth century, and
it is scarcely edifying to find four hundred years after this
the Jesuit Father Lana, who contrived to make his name live in
history as a theoriser in aeronautics, arrogating to himself
the bold conception of the English Friar, with certain
unfortunate differences, however, which in fairness we must
here clearly point out.  Lana proclaimed his speculations
standing on a giant's shoulders.  Torricelli, with his closed
bent tube, had just shown the world how heavily the air lies
above us.  It then required little mathematical skill to
calculate what would be the lifting power of any vessel void of
air on the earth's surface.  Thus Lana proposed the
construction of an air ship which possibly because of its  
picturesquesness has won him notoriety.  But it was a fraud.  We
have but to conceive a dainty boat in which the aeronaut would
sit at ease handling a little rudder and a simple sail.  These,
though a schoolboy would have known better, he thought would
guide his vessel when in the air.

So much has been claimed for Father Lana and his mathematical
and other attainments that it seems only right to insist on the
weakness of his reasoning.  An air ship simply drifting with the
wind is incapable of altering its course in the slightest
degree by either sail or rudder.  It is simply like a log borne
along in a torrent; but to compare such a log properly with the
air ship we must conceive it WHOLLY submerged in the water and
having no sail or other appendage projecting into the air,
which would, of course, introduce other conditions.  If,
however, a man were to sit astride of the log and begin to
propel it so that it travels either faster or slower than the
stream, then in that case, either by paddle or rudder, the log
could be guided, and the same might be said of Lana's air boat
if only he had thought of some adequate paddle, fan, or other
propeller.  But he did not.  One further explanatory sentence
may here be needed; for we hear of balloons which are capable
of being guided to a small extent by sail and rudder.  In these
cases, however, the rudder is a guide rope trailing on earth or
sea, so introducing a fresh element and fresh conditions which
are easy to explain.

Suppose a free balloon drifting down the wind to have a sail
suddenly hoisted on one side, what happens?  The balloon will
simply swing till this sail is in front, and thus continue its
straightforward course.  Suppose, however, that as soon as the
side sail is hoisted a trail rope is also dropped aft from a
spar in the rigging.  The tendency of the sail to fly round in
front is now checked by the dragging rope, and it is
constrained to remain slanting at an angle on one side; at the
same time the rate of the balloon is reduced by the dragging
rope, so that it travels slower than the wind, which, now
acting on its slant sail, imparts a certain sidelong motion
much as it does in the case of a sailing boat.

Lana having in imagination built his ship, proceeds to make it
float up into space, for which purpose he proposes four thin
copper globes exhausted of air.  Had this last been his own
idea we might have pardoned him.  We have, however, pointed out
that it was not, and we must further point out that in copying
his great predecessor he fails to see that he would lose
enormous advantage by using four globes instead of one.  But,
beyond all, he failed to see what the master genius of Bacon
saw clearly--that his thin globes when exhausted must
infallibly collapse by virtue of that very pressure of the air
which he sought to make use of.

It cannot be too strongly insisted on that if the too much
belauded speculations of Lana have any value at all it is that
they throw into stronger contrast the wonderful insight of the
philosopher who so long preceded him.  By sheer genius Bacon had
foreseen that the emptied globe must be filled with SOMETHING,
and for this something he suggests "ethereal air" or "liquid
fire," neither of which, we contend, were empty terms.  With
Bacon's knowledge of experimental chemistry it is a question,
and a most interesting one, whether he had not in his mind those
two actual principles respectively of gas and air rarefied by
heat on which we launch our balloons into space to-day.

Early progress in any art or science is commonly intermittent. 
It was so in the story of aeronautics.  Advance was like that
of the incoming tide, throwing an occasional wave far in front
of its rising flood.  It was a phenomenal wave that bore Roger
Bacon and left his mark on the sand where none other approached
for centuries.  In those centuries men were either too
priest-ridden to lend an ear to Science, or, like children,
followed only the Will-o'-the-Wisp floating above the quagmire
which held them fast.  They ran after the stone that was to
turn all to gold, or the elixir that should conquer death, or
the signs in the heavens that should foretell their destinies;
and the taint of this may be traced even when the dark period
that followed was clearing away.  Four hundred years after
Roger's death, his illustrious namesake, Francis Bacon, was
formulating his Inductive Philosophy, and with complete
cock-sureness was teaching mankind all about everything.  Let
us look at some of his utterances which may help to throw light
on the way he regarded the problem we are dealing with.

"It is reported," Francis Bacon writes, "that the Leucacians in
ancient time did use to precipitate a man from a high cliffe
into the sea; tying about him, with strings, at some distance,
many great fowles; and fixing unto his body divers feathers,
spread, to breake the fall.  Certainly many birds of good wing
(as Kites and the like) would beare up a good weight as they
flie.  And spreading of feathers, thin and close, and in great
breadth, will likewise beare up a great weight, being even laid
without tilting upon the sides.  The further extension of this
experiment of flying may be thought upon."

To say the least, this is hardly mechanical.  But let us next
follow the philosopher into the domain of Physics.  Referring
to a strange assertion, that "salt water will dissolve salt put
into it in less time than fresh water will dissolve it," he is
at once ready with an explanation to fit the case.  "The salt,"
he says, "in the precedent water doth by similitude of
substance draw the salt new put in unto it."  Again, in his
finding, well water is warmer in winter than summer, and "the
cause is the subterranean heat which shut close in (as in
winter) is the more, but if it perspire (as it doth in summer)
it is the less."  This was Bacon the Lord.  What a falling
off--from the experimentalist's point of view--from Bacon the
Friar!  We can fancy him watching a falcon poised motionless in
the sky, and reflecting on that problem which to this day
fairly puzzles our ablest scientists, settling the matter in a
sentence:  "The cause is that feathers doe possess upward
attractions."  During four hundred years preceding Lord Verulam
philosophers would have flown by aid of a broomstick.  Bacon
himself would have merely parried the problem with a platitude!

At any rate, physicists, even in the brilliant seventeenth
century, made no material progress towards the navigation of
the air, and thus presently let the simple mechanic step in
before them.  Ere that century had closed something in the
nature of flight had been accomplished.  It is exceedingly hard
to arrive at actual fact, but it seems pretty clear that more
than one individual, by starting from some eminence, could let
himself fall into space and waft himself away for some distance
with fair success and safety, It is stated that an English
Monk, Elmerus, flew the space of a furlong from a tower in
Spain, a feat of the same kind having been accomplished by
another adventurer from the top of St. Mark's at Venice.

In these attempts it would seem that the principle of the
parachute was to some extent at least brought into play.  If
also circumstantial accounts can be credited, it would appear
that a working model of a flying machine was publicly exhibited
by one John Muller before the Emperor Charles V. at Nuremberg. 
Whatever exaggeration or embellishment history may be guilty of
it is pretty clear that some genuine attempts of a practical
and not unsuccessful nature had been made here and there, and
these prompted the flowery and visionary Bishop Wilkins already
quoted to predict confidently that the day was approaching when
it "would be as common for a man to call for his wings as for
boots and spurs."

We have now to return to the "tame goose" method, which found
its best and boldest exponent in a humble craftsman, by name
Besnier, living at Sable, about the year 1678.  This mechanical
genius was by trade a locksmith, and must have been possessed
of sufficient skill to construct an efficient apparatus out of
such materials as came to his hand, of the simplest possible
design.  It may be compared to the earliest type of bicycle,
the ancient "bone shaker," now almost forgotten save by those
who, like the writer, had experience of it on its first
appearance.  Besnier's wings, as it would appear, were
essentially a pair of double-bladed paddles and nothing more,
roughly resembling the double-paddle of an old-fashioned canoe,
only the blades were large, roughly rectangular, and curved or
hollowed.  The operator would commence by standing erect and
balancing these paddles, one on each shoulder, so that the
hollows of the blades should be towards the ground.  The
forward part of each paddle was then grasped by the hands,
while the hinder part of each was connected to the
corresponding leg.  This, presumably, would be effected after
the arms had been raised vertically, the leg attachment being
contrived in some way which experience would dictate.

The flyer was now fully equipped, and nothing remained for him
save to mount some eminence and, throwing himself forward into
space and assuming the position of a flying bird, to commence
flapping and beating the air with a reciprocal motion.  First,
he would buffet the air downwards with the left arm and right
leg simultaneously, and while these recovered their position
would strike with the right hand and left leg, and so on
alternately.  With this crude method the enterprising inventor
succeeded in raising himself by short stages from one height to
another, reaching thus the top of a house, whence he could pass
over others, or cross a river or the like.

The perfecting of his system became then simply a question of
practice and experience, and had young athletes only been
trained from early years to the new art it seems reasonable to
suppose that some crude approach to human flight would have
been effected.  Modifications and improvements in construction
would soon have suggested themselves, as was the case with the
bicycle, which in its latest developments can scarcely be
recognised as springing from the primitive "bone-shaker" of
thirty-three years ago.  We would suggest the idea to the
modern inventor.  He will in these days, of course, find
lighter materials to hand.  Then he will adopt some link motion
for the legs in place of leather thongs, and will hinge the
paddle blades so that they open out with the forward stroke,
but collapse with the return.  Then look on another
thirty-three years--a fresh generation--and our youth of both
sexes may find a popular recreation in graceful aerial
exercise.  The pace is not likely to be excessive, and
molestations from disguised policemen--not physically adapted,
by the way, to rapid flight--need not be apprehended.

One of the best tests of Besnier's measure of success is
supplied by the fact that he had pupils as well as imitators.
First on this list must be mentioned a Mr. Baldwin, a name
which, curiously enough, twice over in modern times comes into
the records of bold aerial exploits.  This individual, it
appears, purchased a flying outfit of Besnier himself, and
surpassed his master in achievement.  A little later one Dante
contrived some modification of the same apparatus, with which
he pursued the new mode of progress till he met with a
fractured thigh.

But whatever the imitators of Besnier may have accomplished, to
the honest smith must be accorded the full credit of their
success, and with his simple, but brilliant, record left at
flood mark, the tide of progress ebbed back again, while
mankind ruminated over the great problem in apparent
inactivity.  But not for long.  The air-pump about this period
was given to the world, and chemists were already busy
investigating the nature of gases.  Cavallo was experimenting on
kindred lines, while in our own land the rival geniuses of
Priestley and Cavendish were clearing the way to make with
respect to the atmosphere the most important discovery yet
dreamed of.  In recording this dawn of a new era, however, we
should certainly not forget how, across the Atlantic, had arisen
a Rumford and a Franklin, whose labours were destined to throw
an all-important sidelight on the pages of progress which we
have now to chronicle.



CHAPTER II. THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON.


It was a November night of the year 1782, in the little town of
Annonay, near Lyons.  Two young men, Stephen and Joseph
Montgolfier, the representatives of a firm of paper makers,
were sitting together over their parlour fire.  While watching
the smoke curling up the chimney one propounded an idea by way
of a sudden inspiration:  "Why shouldn't smoke be made to raise
bodies into the air?"

The world was waiting for this utterance, which, it would seem,
was on the tip of the tongue with many others. Cavendish had
already discovered what he designated "inflammable air," though
no one had as yet given it its later title of hydrogen gas. 
Moreover, in treating of this gas--Dr. Black of Edinburgh, as
much as fifteen years before the date we have now arrived at,
had suggested that it should be made capable of raising a thin
bladder in the air.  With a shade more of good fortune, or
maybe with a modicum more of leisure, the learned Doctor would
have won the invention of the balloon for his own country. 
Cavallo came almost nearer, and actually putting the same idea
into practice, had succeeded in the spring of 1782 in making
soap bubbles blown with hydrogen gas float upwards.  But he had
accomplished no more when, as related, in the autumn of the
same year the brothers Montgolfier conceived the notion of
making bodies "levitate" by the simpler expedient of filling
them with smoke.

This was the crude idea, the application of which in their
hands was soon marked with notable success.  Their own trade
supplied ready and suitable materials for a first experiment,
and, making an oblong bag of thin paper a few feet in length,
they proceeded to introduce a cloud of smoke into it by holding
crumpled paper kindled in a chafing dish beneath the open
mouth.  What a subject is there here for an imaginative
painter!  As the smoky cloud formed within, the bag distended
itself, became buoyant, and presently floated to the ceiling. 
The simple trial proved a complete success, due, as it appeared
to them, to the ascensive power of a cloud of smoke.

An interesting and more detailed version of the story is
extant.  While the experiment was in progress a neighbour, the
widow of a tradesman who had been connected in business with
the firm, seeing smoke escaping into the room, entered and
stood watching the proceedings, which were not unattended with
difficulties.  The bag, half inflated, was not easy to hold in
position over the chafing dish, and rapidly cooled and
collapsed on being removed from it.  The widow noting this, as
also the perplexity of the young men, suggested that they
should try the result of tying the dish on at the bottom of the
bag.  This was the one thing wanted to secure success, and that
good lady, whose very name is unhappily lost, deserves an
honoured place in history.  It was unquestionably the adoption
of her idea which launched the first balloon into space.

The same experiment repeated in the open air proving a yet more
pronounced success, more elaborate trials were quickly
developed, and the infant balloon grew fast.  One worthy of the
name, spherical in shape and of some 600 cubic feet capacity,
was now made and treated as before, with the result that ere it
was fully inflated it broke the strings that held it and sailed
away hundreds of feet into the air.  The infant was fast
becoming a prodigy.  Encouraged by their fresh success, the
inventors at once set about preparations for the construction
of a much larger balloon some thirty-five feet diameter (that
is, of about 23,000 cubic feet capacity), to be made of linen
lined with paper and this machine, launched on a favourable day
in the following spring, rose with great swiftness to fully a
thousand feet, and travelled nearly a mile from its starting
ground.

Enough; the time was already ripe for a public demonstration of
the new invention, and accordingly the 5th of the following
June witnessed the ascent of the same balloon with due ceremony
and advertisement.  Special pains were taken with the
inflation, which was conducted over a pit above which the
balloon envelope was slung; and in accordance with the view
that smoke was the chief lifting power, the fuel was composed
of straw largely mixed with wool.  It is recorded that the
management of the furnace needed the attention of two men only,
while eight men could hardly hold the impatient balloon in
restraint.  The inflation, in spite of the fact that the fuel
chosen was scarcely the best for the purpose, was conducted
remarkable expedition, and on being released, the  craft
travelled one and a half miles into the air, attaining a height
estimated at over 6,000 feet.

From this time the tide of events in the aeronautical world
rolls on in full flood, almost every half-year marking a fresh
epoch, until a new departure in the infant art of ballooning was
already on the point of being reached.  It had been erroneously
supposed that the ascent of the Montgolfier balloon had been
due, not to the rarefaction of the air within it--which was its
true cause--but to the evolution of some light gas disengaged by
the nature of the fuel used.  It followed, therefore, almost as
a matter of course, that chemists, who, as stated in the last
chapter, were already acquainted with so-called "inflammable
air," or hydrogen gas, grasped the fact that this gas would
serve better than any other for the purposes of a balloon.  And
no sooner had the news of the Montgolfiers' success reached
Paris than a subscription was raised, and M. Charles, Professor
of Experimental Philosophy, was appointed, with the assistance
of M. Roberts, to superintend the construction of a suitable
balloon and its inflation by the proposed new method.

The task was one of considerable difficulty, owing partly to
the necessity of procuring some material which would prevent
the escape of the lightest and most subtle gas known, and no
less by reason of the difficulty of preparing under pressure a
sufficient quantity of gas itself.  The experiment, sound
enough in theory, was eventually carried through after several
instructive failures.  A suitable material was found in
"lustring," a glossy silk cloth varnished with a solution of
caoutchouc, and this being formed into a balloon only thirteen
feet in diameter and fitted without other aperture than a
stopcock, was after several attempts filled with hydrogen gas
prepared in the usual way by the action of dilute sulphuric
acid on scrap iron.

The preparations completed, one last and all-important mistake
was made by closing the stop-cock before the balloon was
dismissed, the disastrous and unavoidable result of this being
at the time overlooked.

On August 25, 1783, the balloon was liberated on the Champ de
Mars before an enormous concourse, and in less than two minutes
had reached an elevation of half a mile, when it was temporarily
lost in cloud, through which, however, it penetrated, climbing
into yet higher cloud, when, disappearing from sight, it
presently burst and descended to earth after remaining in the
air some three-quarters of an hour.

The bursting of this little craft taught the future balloonist
his first great lesson, namely, that on leaving earth he must
open the neck of his balloon; and the reason of this is obvious. 
While yet on earth the imprisoned gas of a properly filled
balloon distends the silk by virtue of its expansive force, and
in spite of the enormous outside pressure which the weight of
air exerts upon it.  Then, as the balloon rises high in the air
and the outside pressure grows less, the struggling gas within,
if allowed no vent, stretches the balloon more and more until
the slender fabric bursts under the strain.

At the risk of being tedious, we have dwelt at some length on
the initial experiments which in less than a single year had led
to the discovery and development of two distinct methods--still
employed and in competition with each other--of dismissing
balloons into the heavens.  We are now prepared to enter fully
into the romantic history of our subject which from this point
rapidly unfolds itself.

Some eleven months only after the two Montgolfiers were
discovered toying with their inflated paper bag, the younger of
the two brothers was engaged to make an exhibition of his new
art before the King at Versailles, and this was destined to be
the first occasion when a balloon was to carry a living freight
into the sky.  The stately structure, which was gorgeously
decorated, towered some seventy feet into the air, and was
furnished with a wicker car in which the passengers were duly
installed.  These were three in number, a sheep, a cock, and a
duck, and amid the acclamations of the multitude, rose a few
hundred feet and descended half a mile away.  The cock was
found to have sustained an unexplained mishap:  its leg was
broken; but the sheep was feeding complacently, and the duck
was quacking with much apparent satisfaction.

Now, who among mortals will come forward and win the honour of
being the first to sail the skies?  M. Pilitre de Rozier at
once volunteered, and by the month of November a new air ship
was built, 74 feet high, 48 feet in largest diameter, and 15
feet across the neck, outside which a wicker gallery was
constructed, while an iron brazier was slung below all.  But to
trim the boat properly two passengers were needed, and de
Rozier found a ready colleague in the Marquis d'Arlandes.  By
way of precaution, de Rozier made a few preliminary ascents
with the balloon held captive, and then the two intrepid
Frenchmen took their stand on opposite sides of the gallery,
each furnished with bundles of fuel to feed the furnace, each
also carrying a large wet sponge with which to extinguish the
flames whenever the machine might catch fire.  On casting off
the balloon rose readily, and reaching 3,000 feet, drifted away
on an upper current.

The rest of the narrative, much condensed from a letter of the
Marquis, written a week later, runs somewhat thus:  "Our
departure was at fifty-four minutes past one, and occasioned
little stir among the spectators.  Thinking they might be
frightened and stand in need of encouragement, I waved my arm. 
M. de Rozier cried, 'You are doing nothing, and we are not
rising!'  I stirred the fire, and then began to scan the river,
but Pilitre cried again, 'See the river; we are dropping into
it!'  We again urged the fire, but still clung to the river bed. 
Presently I heard a noise in the upper part of the balloon,
which gave a shock as though it had burst.  I called to my
companion, 'Are you dancing?'  The balloon by now had many holes
burned in it, and using my sponge I cried that we must descend. 
My companion, however, explained that we were over Paris, and
must now cross it.  Therefore, raising the fire once more, we
turned south till we passed the Luxemburg, when, extinguishing
the flame, the balloon came down spent and empty."

Daring as was this ascent, it was in achievement eclipsed two
months later at Lyons, when a mammoth balloon, 130 feet in
height and lifting 18 tons, was inflated in seventeen minutes,
and ascended with no less than seven passengers.  When more than
half a mile aloft this machine, which was made of too slender
material for its huge size, suddenly developed a rent of half
its length, causing it to descend with immense velocity; but
without the smallest injury to any of the passengers.  This was
a memorable performance, and the account, sensational as it may
read, is by no means unworthy of credit; for, as will be seen
hereafter, a balloon even when burst or badly torn in midair
may, on the principle of the parachute, effect its own
salvation.

In the meanwhile, the rival balloon of hydrogen gas--the
Charliere, as it has been called--had had its first innings. 
Before the close of the year MM. Roberts and Charles
constructed and inflated a hydrogen balloon, this time fitted
with a practicable valve, and in partnership accomplished an
ascent beating all previous records.  The day, December 17, was
one of winter temperature; yet the aeronauts quickly reached
6,000 feet, and when, after remaining aloft for one and a half
hours, they descended, Roberts got out, leaving Charles in sole
possession.  Left to himself, this young recruit seems to have
met with experiences which are certainly unusual, and which
must be attributed largely to the novelty of his situation.  He
declared that at 9,000 feet, or less than two miles, all
objects on the earth had disappeared from view, a statement
which can only be taken to mean that he had entered cloud. 
Further, at this moderate elevation he not only became benumbed
with cold, but felt severe pain in his right ear and jaw.  He
held on, however, ascending till 10,500 feet were reached, when
he descended, having made a journey of thirty miles from the
start.

Ascents, all on the Continent, now followed one another in rapid
succession, and shortly the MM. Roberts essayed a venture on new
lines.  They attempted the guidance of a balloon by means of
oars, and though they failed in this they were fortunate in
making a fresh record.  They also encountered a thunderstorm,
and by adopting a perfectly scientific method--of which more
hereafter--succeeded in eluding it.  The storm broke around them
when they were 14,000 feet high, and at this altitude, noting
that there were diverse currents aloft, they managed to
manoeuvre their balloon higher or lower at will and to suit
their purpose, and by this stratagem drew away from the storm
centre.  After six and a half hours their voyage ended, but not
until 150 miles had been covered.

It must be freely granted that prodigious progress had been
made in an art that as yet was little more than a year old; but
assuredly not enough to justify the absurdly inflated ideas
that the Continental public now began to indulge in.  Men lost
their mental balance, allowing their imagination to run riot,
and speculation became extravagant in the extreme.  There was
to be no limit henceforward to the attainment of fresh
knowledge, nor any bounds placed to where man might roam.  The
universe was open to him:  he might voyage if he willed to the
moon or elsewhere:  Paris was to be the starting point for other
worlds:  Heaven itself had been taken by storm.

Moderation had to be learned ere long by the discipline of more
than one stern lesson.  Hitherto a marvellous--call it a
Providential--good fortune had attended the first aerial
travellers; and even when mishaps presently came to be reckoned
with, it may fairly be questioned whether so many lives were
sacrificed among those who sought to voyage through the sky as
were lost among such as first attempted to navigate the sea.

It is in such ventures as we are now regarding that fortune
seems readiest to favour the daring, and if I may digress
briefly to adduce experiences coming within my own knowledge, I
would say that it is to his very impulsiveness that the
enthusiast often owes the safety of his neck.  It is the timid,
not the bold rider, that comes to grief at the fence.  It is
the man who draws back who is knocked over by a tramcar.  Sheer
impetus, moral or physical, often carries you through, as in
the case of a fall from horse-back.  To tumble off when your
horse is standing still and receive a dead blow from the ground
might easily break a limb.  But at full gallop immunity often
lies in the fact that you strike the earth at an angle, and
being carried forward, impact is less abrupt.  I can only say
that I have on more than one occasion found the greatest safety
in a balloon venture involving the element of risk to lie in
complete abandonment to circumstances, and in the increased
life and activity which the delirium of excitement calls forth. 
In comparing, however, man's first ventures by sky with those
by sea, we must remember what far greater demand the former
must have made upon the spirit of enterprise and daring.

We can picture the earliest sea voyager taking his first lesson
astride of a log with one foot on the bottom, and thus
proceeding by sure stages till he had built his coracle and
learned to paddle it in shoal water.  But the case was wholly
different when the first frail air ship stood at her moorings
with straining gear and fiercely burning furnace, and when the
sky sailor knew that no course was left him but to dive boldly
up into an element whence there was no stepping back, and
separated from earth by a gulf which man instinctively dreads
to look down upon.

Taking events in their due sequence, we have now to record a
voyage which the terrors of sky and sea together combined to
make memorable.  Winter had come--early January of 1785--when,
in spite of short dark days and frosty air, M. Blanchard,
accompanied by an American, Dr. Jeffries, determined on an
attempt to cross the Channel.  They chose the English side, and
inflating their balloon with hydrogen at Dover, boldly cast
off, and immediately drifted out to sea.  Probably they had not
paid due thought to the effect of low sun and chilly
atmosphere, for their balloon rose sluggishly and began
settling down ere little more than a quarter of their course
was run.  Thereupon they parted with a large portion of their
ballast, with  the result that they crept on as far as mid-
Channel, when they began descending again, and cast out the
residue of their sand, together with some books, and this, too,
with the uncomfortable feeling that even these measures would
not suffice to secure their safety.

This was in reality the first time that a sea passage had been
made by sky, and the gravity of their situation must not be
under-estimated.  We are so accustomed in a sea passage to the
constant passing of other vessels that we allow ourselves to
imagine that a frequented portion of the ocean, such as the
Channel, is thickly dotted over with shipping of some sort.  But
in entertaining this idea we are forgetful of the fact that we
are all the while on a steamer track.  The truth, however, is
that anywhere outside such a track, even from the commanding
point of view of a high-flying balloon, the ocean is seen to be
more vast than we suppose, and bears exceedingly little but the
restless waves upon its surface.  Once fairly in the water with
a fallen balloon, there is clearly no rising again, and the life
of the balloon in this its wrong element is not likely to be a
long one.  The globe of gas may under favourable circumstances
continue to float for some while, but the open wicker car is the
worst possible boat for the luckless voyagers, while to leave it
and cling to the rigging is but a forlorn hope, owing to the
massof netting which surrounds the silk, and which would prove a
death-trap in the water.  There are many instances of lives
having been lost in such a dilemma, even when help was near at
hand.

Our voyagers, whom we left in mid-air and stream, were soon 
descending again, and this time they threw out their
tackle--anchor, ropes, and other gear, still without adequately
mending matters.  Then their case grew desperate.  The French
coast was, indeed, well in sight, but there seemed but slender
chance of reaching it, when they began divesting themselves
of clothing as a last resort.  The upshot of this was
remarkable, and deserves a moment's consideration.  When a
balloon has been lightened almost to the utmost the discharge
of a small weight sometimes has a magical effect, as is not
difficult to understand.  Throwing out ten pounds at an early
stage, when there may be five hundred pounds more of
superfluous weight, will tell but little, but when those five
hundred pounds are expended then an extra ten pounds scraped
together from somewhere and cast overboard may cause a balloon
to make a giant stride into space by way of final effort; and
it was so with M. Blanchard.  His expiring balloon shot up and
over the approaching land, and came safely to earth near the
Forest of Guiennes.  A magnificent feast was held at Calais to
celebrate the above event.  M. Blanchard was presented with the
freedom of the city in a gold box, and application was made to
the Ministry to have the balloon purchased and deposited as a
memorial in the church.  On the testimony of the grandson of
Dr. Jeffries the car of this balloon is now in the museum of
the same city.

A very noteworthy example of how a balloon may be made to take
a fresh lease of life is supplied by a voyage of M. Testu about
this date, which must find brief mention in these pages.  In
one aspect it is laughable, in another it is sublime.  From
every point of view it is romantic.

It was four o'clock on a threatening day in June when the
solitary aeronaut took flight from Paris in a small hydrogen
balloon only partially filled, but rigged with somencontrivance
of wings which were designed to render it self-propelling. 
Discovering, however, that this device was inoperative, M.
Testu, after about an hour and a half, allowed the balloon to
descend to earth in a corn field, when, without quitting hold of
the car, he commenced collecting stones for ballast.  But as yet
he knew not the ways of churlish proprietors of land, and in
consequence was presently surprised by a troublesome crowd, who
proceeded, as they supposed, to take him prisoner till he should
pay heavy compensation, dragging him off to the nearest village
by the trail rope of his balloon.

M. Testu now had leisure to consider his situation, and
presently hit on a stratagem the like of which has often since
been adopted by aeronauts in like predicament.  Representing to
his captors that without his wings he would be powerless, he
suffered them to remove these weighty appendages, when also
dropping a heavy cloak, he suddenly cut the cord by which he was
being dragged, and, regaining freedom, soared away into the sky. 
He was quickly high aloft, and heard thunder below him, soon
after which, the chill of evening beginning to bring him
earthward, he descried a hunt in full cry, and succeeded in
coming down near the huntsmen, some of whom galloped up to him,
and for their benefit he ascended again, passing this time into
dense cloud with thunder and lightning.  He saw the sun go down
and the lightning gather round, yet with admirable courage he
lived the night out aloft till the storms were spent and the
midsummer sun rose once more.  With daylight restored, his
journey ended at a spot over sixty miles from Paris.

We have, of course, recounted only a few of the more noteworthy
early ballooning ventures.  In reality there had up to the
present time been scores of ascents made in different
localities and in all conditions of wind and weather, yet not a
life had been lost.  We have now, however, to record a casualty
which cost the first and boldest aeronaut his life, and which
is all the more regrettable as being due to circumstances that
should never have occurred.

M. Pilatre de Rosier, accompanied by M. Romain, determined on
crossing the Channel from the French side; and, thinking to add
to their buoyancy and avoid the risk of falling in the sea, hit
on the extraordinary idea of using a fire balloon beneath
another filled with hydrogen gas!  With this deadly compound
machine they actually ascended from Boulogne, and had not left
the land when the inevitable catastrophe took place.

The balloons caught fire and blew up at a height of 3,000 feet,
while the unfortunate voyagers were dashed to atoms.  



CHAPTER III. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND.


As may be supposed, it was not long before the balloon was
introduced into England.  Indeed, the first successful ascent
on record made in our own country took place in the summer of
1784, ten months previous to the fatal venture narrated at the
close of the last chapter.  Now, it is a remarkable and equally
regrettable circumstance that though the first ascent on
British soil was undoubtedly made by one of our own countrymen,
the fact is almost universally forgotten, or ignored, and the
credit is accorded to a foreigner.

Let us in strict honesty examine into the case.  Vincent
Lunardi, an Italian, Secretary to the Neapolitan Ambassador,
Prince Caramanico, being in England in the year 1784,
determined on organising and personally executing an ascent
from London; and his splendid enterprise, which was presently
carried to a successful issue, will form the principal subject
of the present chapter.  It will be seen that remarkable
success crowned his efforts, and that his first and ever
memorable voyage was carried through on September 15th of that
year.

More than a month previously, however, attention had been
called to the fact that a Mr. Tytler was preparing to make an
ascent from Edinburgh in a hot air balloon, and in the London
Chronicle of August 27th occurs the following circumstantial
and remarkable letter from a correspondent to that journal:Ä

"Edinburgh, Aug.  27, 1784.

"Mr. Tytler has made several improvements upon his fire balloon.
The reason of its failure formerly was its being made of porous
linen, through which the air made its escape.  To remedy this
defect, Mr. Tytler has got it covered with a varnish to retain
the inflammable air after the balloon is filled.

"Early this morning this bold adventurer took his first aerial
flight.  The balloon being filled at Comely Garden, he seated
himself in the basket, and the ropes being cut he ascended very
high and descended quite gradually on the road to Restalrig,
about half a mile from the place where he rose, to the great
satisfaction of those spectators who were present.  Mr. Tytler
went up without the furnace this morning; when that is added he
will be able to feed the balloon with inflammable air, and
continue his aerial excursions as long as he chooses.

"Mr. Tytler is now in high spirits, and in his turn laughs at
those infidels who ridiculed his scheme as visionary and
impracticable.  Mr. Tytler is the first person in Great Britain
who has navigated the air."

Referring to this exploit, Tytler, in a laudatory epistle
addressed to Lunardi, tells of the difficulties he had had to
contend with, and artlessly reveals the cool, confident courage
he must have displayed.  No shelter being available for the
inflation, and a strong wind blowing, his first misfortune was
the setting fire to his wicker gallery.  The next was the
capsizing and damaging of his balloon, which he had lined with
paper.  He now substituted a coat of varnish for the paper, and
his gallery being destroyed, so that he could no longer attempt
to take up a stove, he resolved to ascend without one.  In the
end the balloon was successfully inflated, when he had the
hardihood to entrust himself to a small basket (used for
carrying earthenware) slung below, and thus to launch himself
into the sky.  He did so under the conviction that the risk he
ran was greater than it really was, for he argued that his
craft was now only like a projectile, and "must undoubtedly
come to the ground with the same velocity with which it
ascended."  On this occasion the crowd tried for some time to
hold him near the ground by one of the restraining ropes, so
that his flight was curtailed.  In a second experiment,
however, he succeeded in rising some hundreds of feet, and came
to earth without mishap.

But little further information respecting Mr. Tytler is
apparently forthcoming, and therefore beyond recording the fact
that he was the first British aeronaut, and also that he was
the first to achieve a balloon ascent in Great Britain, we are
unable to make further mention of him in this history.

Of his illustrious contemporary already mentioned there is, on
the contrary, much to record, and we would desire to give full
credit to his admirable courage and perseverance.  It was with
a certain national and pardonable pride that the young Italian
planned his bold exploit, feeling with a sense of self-
satisfaction, which he is at no pains to hide, that he aimed
at winning honour for his country as well as for himself.  In a
letter which he wrote to his guardian, Chevalier Gherardo
Compagni, he alludes to the stolid indifference of the English
people and philosophers to the brilliant achievements in
aeronautics which had been made and so much belauded on the
Continent.  He proclaims the rivalry as regards science and art
existing between France and England, attributing to the latter
an attitude of sullen jealousy.  At the same time he is fully
alive to the necessity of gaining English patronage, and sets
about securing this with tactful diplomacy.  First he casts
about for a suitable spot where his enterprise would not fail
to enlist general attention and perhaps powerful patrons, and
here he is struck by the attractions and facilities offered by
Chelsea Hospital.  He therefore applies to Sir George Howard,
the Governor, asking for the use of the famous hospital, to
which, on the occasion of his experiments, he desires that
admittance should only be granted to subscribers, while any
profits should be devoted to the pensioners of the hospital. 
His application having been granted, he assures his guardian
that he "still maintains his mental balance, and his sleep is
not banished by the magnitude of his enterprise, which is
destined to lead him through the path of danger to glory."

This letter was dated the 15th of July, and by the beginning of
August his advertisement was already before the public,
inviting subscribers and announcing a private view of his
balloon at the Lyceum, where it was m course of construction,
and was being fitted with contrivances of his own in the shape
of oars and sails.  He had by this time not only enlisted the
interest of Sir George Howard, and of Sir Joseph Banks, but had
secured the direct patronage of the King.

But within a fortnight a most unforeseen mishap had occurred,
which threatened to overwhelm Lunardi in disappointment and
ruin.  A Frenchman of the name of Moret, designing to turn to
his own advertisement the attention attracted by Lunardi's
approaching trials, attempted to forestall the event by an
enterprise of his own, announcing that he would make an ascent
with a hot air balloon in some gardens near Chelsea Hospital,
and at a date previous to that fixed upon by Lunardi.  In
attempting, however, to carry out this unworthy project the
adventurer met with the discomfiture he deserved.  He failed to
effect his inflation, and when after fruitless attempts
continued for three hours, his balloon refused to rise, a large
crowd, estimated at 60,000, assembled outside, broke into the
enclosure, committing havoc on all sides, not unattended with
acts of violence and robbery.

The whole neighbourhood became alarmed, and it followed as a
matter of course that Lunardi was peremptorily ordered to
discontinue his preparations, and to announce in the public
press that his ascent from Chelsea Hospital was forbidden. 
Failure and ruin now stared the young enthusiast in the face,
and it was simply the generous feeling of the British public,
and the desire to see fair play, that gave him another chance. 
As it was, he became the hero of the hour; thousands flocked to
the show rooms at the Lyceum, and he shortly obtained fresh
grounds, together with needful protection for his project, at
the hands of the Hon.Artillery Company.  By the 15th of
September all incidental difficulties, the mere enumeration of
which would unduly swell these pages, had been overcome by sheer
persistence, and Lunardi stood in the inenclosure allotted him,
his preparations in due order, with 150,000 souls, who had
formed for hours a dense mass of spectators, watching intently
and now confidently the issue of his bold endeavour.

But his anxieties were as yet far from over, for a London crowd
had never yet witnessed a balloon ascent, while but a month ago
they had seen and wreaked their wrath upon the failure of an
adventurer.  They were not likely to be more tolerant now.  And
when the advertised hour for departure had arrived, and the
balloon remained inadequately inflated, matters began to take a
more serious turn.  Half an hour later they approached a
crisis, when it began to be known that the balloon still lacked
buoyancy, and that the supply of gas was manifestly
insufficient.  The impatience of the mob indeed was kept in
restraint by one man alone.  This man was the Prince of Wales
who, refusing to join the company within the building and
careless of the attitude of the crowd, remained near the
balloon to check disorder and unfair treatment.

But an hour after time the balloon still rested inert and then,
with fine resolution, Lunardi tried one last expedient.  He
bade his colleague, Mr. Biggen, who was to have ascended with
him, remain behind, and quietly substituting a smaller and
lighter wicker car, or rather gallery, took his place within
and severed the cords just as the last gun fired.  The Prince
of Wales raised his hat, imitated at once by all the
bystanders, and the first balloon that ever quitted English
soil rose into the air amid the extravagant enthusiasm of the
multitude.  The intrepid aeronaut, pardonably excited, and
fearful lest he should not be seen within the gallery, made
frantic efforts to attract attention by waving his flag, and
worked his oars so vigorously that one of them broke and fell. 
A pigeon also gained its freedom and escaped.  The voyager,
however, still retained companions in his venture--a dog and a
cat.

Following his own account, Lunardi's first act on finding
himself fairly above the town was to fortify himself with some
glasses of wine, and to devour the leg of a chicken.  He
describes the city as a vast beehive, St. Paul's and other
churches standing out prominently; the streets shrunk to lines,
and all humanity apparently transfixed and watching him.  A
little later he is equally struck with the view of the open
country, and his ecstasy is pardonable in a novice.  The
verdant pastures eclipsed the visions of his own lands.  The
precision of boundaries impressed him with a sense of law and
order, and of good administration in the country where he was
a sojourner.

By this time he found his balloon, which had been only
two-thirds full at starting, to be so distended that he was
obliged to untie the mouth to release the strain.  He also
found that the condensed moisture round the neck had frozen. 
These two statements point to his having reached a considerable
altitude, which is intelligible enough.  It is, however,
difficult to believe his further assertion that by the use of
his single oar he succeeded in working himself down to within a
few hundred feet of the earth.  The descent of the balloon
must, in point of fact, have been due to a copious outrush of
gas at his former altitude.  Had his oar really been effective
in working the balloon down it would not have needed the
discharge of ballast presently spoken of to cause it to
reascend.  Anyhow, he found himself sufficiently near the earth
to land a passenger who was anxious to get out.  His cat had not
been comfortable in the cold upper regions, and now at its
urgent appeal was deposited in a corn field, which was the point
of first contact with the earth.  It was carefully received by a
country-woman, who promptly sold it to a gentleman on the other
side of the hedge, who had been pursuing the balloon.

The first ascent of a balloon in England was deserving of some
record, and an account alike circumstantial and picturesque is
forthcoming.  The novel and astonishing sight was witnessed by
a Hertfordshire farmer, whose testimony, published by Lunardi
in the same year, runs as follows:--

This deponent on his oath sayeth that, being on Wednesday, the
15th day of September instant, between the hours of three and
four in the afternoon, in a certain field called Etna, in the
parish of North Mimms aforesaid, he perceived a large machine
sailing in the air, near the place where he was on horseback;
that the machine continuing to approach the earth, the part of
it in which this deponent perceived a gentleman standing came
to the ground and dragged a short way on the ground in a
slanting direction; that the time when this machine thus
touched the earth was, as near as this deponent could judge,
about a quarter before four in the afternoon.  That this
deponent being on horseback, and his horse restive, he could not
approach nearer to the machine than about four poles, but that
he could plainly perceive therein gentleman dressed in light
coloured cloaths, holding in his hand a trumpet, which had the
appearance of silver or bright tin.  That by this time several
harvest men coming up from the other part of the field, to the
number of twelve men and thirteen women, this deponent called
to them to endeavour to stop the machine, which the men
attempted, but the gentleman in the machine desiring them to
desist, and the machine moving with considerable rapidity, and
clearing the earth, went off in a north direction and continued
in sight at a very great height for near an hour afterwards. 
And this deponent further saith that the part of the machine in
the which the gentleman stood did not actually touch the ground
for more than half a minute, during which time the gentleman
threw out a parcel of what appeared to this deponent as dry
sand.  That after the machine had ascended again from the earth
this deponent perceived a grapple with four hooks, which hung
from the bottom of the machine, dragging along the ground,
which carried up with it into the air a small parcel of loose
oats, which the women were raking in the field.  And this
deponent further on his oath sayeth that when the machine had
risen clear from the ground about twenty yards the gentleman
spoke to this deponent and to the rest of the people with his
trumpet, wishing them goodbye and saying that he should soon go
out of sight.  And this deponent further on his oath sayeth
that the machine in which the gentleman came down to earth
appeared to consist of two distinct parts connected together by
ropes, namely that in which the gentleman appeared to be, a
stage boarded at the bottom, and covered with netting and ropes
on the sides about four feet and a half high, and the other
part of the machine appeared in the shape of an urn, about
thirty feet high and of about the same diameter, made of canvas
like oil skin, with green, red, and yellow stripes.

NATHANIEL WHITBREAD.

Sworn before me this twentieth day of September, 1784, WILLIAM
BAKER.

It was a curious fact, pointed out to the brave Italian by a
resident, that the field in which the temporary descent had
been made was called indifferently Etna or Italy, "from the
circumstance which attended the late enclosure of a large
quantity of roots, rubbish, etc., having been collected there,
and having continued burning for many days.  The common people
having heard of a burning mountain in Italy gave the field that
name."

But the voyage did not end at Etna.  The, as yet, inexperienced
aeronaut now cast out all available ballast in the shape of
sand, as also his provisions, and rising with great speed, soon
reached a greater altitude than before, which he sought to
still farther increase by throwing down his plates, knives, and
forks.  In this somewhat reckless expenditure he thought
himself justified by the reliance he placed on his oar, and it
is not surprising that in the end he owns that he owed his
safety in his final descent to his good fortune.  The narrative
condensed concludes thus:--

"At twenty minutes past four I descended in a meadow near Ware. 
Some labourers were at work in it.  I requested their
assistance, but they exclaimed they would have nothing to do
with one who came on the Devil's Horse, and no entreaties could
prevail on them to approach me.  I at last owed my deliverance
to a young woman in the field who took hold of a cord I had
thrown out, and, calling to the men, they yielded that
assistance at her request which they had refused to mine."

As may be supposed, Lunardi's return to London resembled a
royal progress.  Indeed, he was welcomed as a conqueror to whom
the whole town sought to do honour, and perhaps his greatest
gratification came by way of the accounts he gathered of
incidents which occurred during his eventful voyage.  At a
dinner at which he was being entertained by the Lord Mayor and
judges he learned that a lady seeing his falling oar, and
fancying that he himself was dashed to pieces, received a shock
thereby which caused her death.  Commenting on this, one of the
judges bade him be reassured, inasmuch as he had, as if by
compensation, saved the life of a young man who might live to
be reformed.  The young man was a criminal whose condemnation
was regarded as certain at the hands of the jury before whom he
was being arraigned, when tidings reached the court that
Lunardi's balloon was in the air.  On this so much confusion
arose that the jury were unable to give due deliberation to the
case, and, fearing to miss the great sight, actually agreed to
acquit the prisoner, that they themselves might be free to
leave the court!

But he was flattered by a compliment of a yet higher order.  He
was told that while he hovered over London the King was in
conference with his principal Ministers, and his Majesty,
learning that he was in the sky, is reported to have said to
his councillors, "We may resume our own deliberations at
pleasure, but we may never see poor Lunardi again!"  On this,
it is further stated that the conference broke up, and the
King, attended by Mr. Pitt and other chief officers of State,
continued to view Lunardi through telescopes as long as he
remained in the horizon.

The public Press, notably the Morning Post of September 16,
paid a worthy tribute to the hero of the hour, and one last act
of an exceptional character was carried out in his honour, and
remains in evidence to this hour.  In a meadow in the parish of
Standon, near Ware, there stands a rough hewn stone, now
protected by an iron rail.  It marks the spot where Lunardi
landed, and on it is cut a legend which runs thus:

Let Posterity know
And knowing be astonished
that
On the 15th day of September 1784
Vincent Lunardi of Lusca in Tuscany
The first aerial traveller in Britain
Mounting from the Artillery Ground
In London
And Traversing the Regions of the Air
For Two Hours and Fifteen Minutes
In this Spot Revisited the Earth.
On this rude monument
For ages be recorded
That Wondrous Enterprise
Successfully atchieved
By the Powers of Chemistry
And the Fortitude of Man
That Improvement in Science
Which
The Great Author of all Knowledge
Patronyzing by His Providence
The Invention of Mankind
Hath graciously permitted
To Their Benefit
And
His own Eternal Glory.



CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF BALLOON PHILOSOPHY.


In less than two years not only had the science of ballooning
reached almost its highest development, but the balloon itself,
as an aerostatic machine, had been brought to a state of
perfection which has been but little improved upon up to the
present t hour.  Better or cheaper methods of inflation were
yet to be discovered, lighter and more suitable material
remained to be manufactured; but the navigation of the air,
which hitherto through all time had been beyond man's grasp,
had been attained, as it were, at a bound, and at the hands of
many different and independent experimentalists was being
pursued with almost the same degree of success and safety as
to-day.

Nor was this all.  There was yet another triumph of the
aeronautical art which, within the same brief period, had been
to all intents and purposes achieved, even if it had not been
brought to the same state of perfection as at the present hour. 
This was the Parachute.  This fact is one which for a
sufficient reason is not generally known.  It is very commonly
supposed that the parachute, in anything like its present form,
is a very modern device, and that the art of successfully using
it had not been introduced to the world even so lately as
thirty years ago.  Thus, we find it stated in works of that
date dealing with the subject that disastrous consequences
almost necessarily attended the use of the parachute, "the
defects of which had been attempted to be remedied in various
ways, but up to this time without success."  A more correct
statement, however, would have been that the art of
constructing and using a practicable parachute had through many
years been lost or forgotten.  In actual fact, it had been
adopted with every assurance of complete success by the year
1785, when Blanchard by its means lowered dogs and other
animals with safety from a balloon.  A few years later he
descended himself in a like apparatus from Basle, meeting,
however, with the misadventure of a broken leg.

But we must go much further back for the actual conception of
the parachute, which, we might suppose, may originally have
been suggested by the easy floating motion with which certain
seeds or leaves will descend from lofty trees, or by the mode
adopted by birds of dropping softly to earth with out-stretched
wings.  M. de la Loubere, in his historical account of Siam,
which he visited in 1687-88, speaks of an ingenious athlete who
exceedingly diverted the King and his court by leaping from a
height and supporting himself in the air by two umbrellas, the
handles of which were affixed to his girdle.  In 1783, that is,
the same year as that in which the balloon was invented, M. le
Normand experimented with a like umbrella-shaped contrivance,
with a view to its adoption as a fire escape, and he
demonstrated the soundness of the principle by descending
himself from the windows of a lofty house at Lyons.

It was, however, reserved for M. Jacques Garnerin in 1797 to
make the first parachute descent that attracted general
attention.  Garnerin had previously been detained as a State
prisoner in the fortress of Bade, in Hungary, after the battle
of Marchiennes in 1793, and during his confinement had pondered
on the possibility of effecting his escape by a parachute.  His
solitary cogitations and calculations resulted, after his
release, in the invention and construction of an apparatus
which he put to a practical test at Paris before the court of
France on October 22nd, 1797.  Ascending in a hydrogen balloon
to the height of about 2,000 feet, he unhesitatingly cut
himself adrift, when for some distance he dropped like a stone. 
The folds of his apparatus, however, opening suddenly, his fall
became instantly checked.  The remainder of his descent, though
leisurely, occupying, in fact, some twelve minutes, appeared to
the spectators to be attended with uncertainty, owing to a
swinging motion set up in the car to which he was clinging. 
But the fact remains that he reached the earth with only slight
impact, and entirely without injury.

It appears that Garnerin subsequently made many equally
successful parachute descents in France, and during the short
peace of 1802 visited London, where he gave an exhibition of
his art.  From the most reliable accounts of his exploit it
would seem that his drop was from a very great height, and that
a strong ground wind was blowing at the time, the result of
which was that wild, wide oscillations were set up in the car,
which narrowly escaped bringing him in contact with the house
tops in St. Pancreas, and eventually swung him down into a
field, not without some unpleasant scratches.

Nor was Garnerin the only successful parachutist at this
period.  A Polish aeronaut, Jordaki Kuparento, ascended from
Warsaw on the 24th of July, 1804 in a hot air balloon, taking
up, as was the custom, an attached furnace, which caused the
balloon to take fire when at a great height.  Kuparento,
however, who was alone, had as a precaution provided himself
with a parachute, and with this he seems to have found no
difficulty in effecting a safe descent to earth.

It was many years after this that fresh experimentalists,
introducing parachutes on new lines and faulty in construction,
met with death or disaster.  Enough, however, has already been
said to show that in the early years we are now traversing in
this history a perfectly practicable parachute had become an
accomplished fact.  The early form is well described by Mr.
Monck Mason in a letter to the Morning Herald in 1837, written
on the eve of an unrehearsed and fatal experiment made by Mr.
Cocking, which must receive notice in due course.  "The
principle," writes Mr. Monck Mason, "upon which all these
parachutes were constructed is the same, and consists simply of
a flattened dome of silk or linen from 24 feet to 28 feet in
diameter.  From the outer margin all around at stated intervals
proceed a large number of cords, in length about the diameter
of the dome itself, which, being collected together in one
point and made fast to another of superior dimensions attached
to the apex of the machine, serve to maintain it in its form
when expanded in the progress of the descent.  To this centre
cord likewise, at a distance below the point of junction,
varying according to the fancy of the aeronaut, is fixed the
car or basket in which he is seated, and the whole suspended
from the network of the balloon in such a manner as to be
capable of being detached in an instant at the will of the
individual by cutting the rope by which it is made fast above."

It followed almost as a matter of course that so soon as the
balloon had been made subject to something like due control,
and thus had become recognised as a new machine fairly reduced
to the service of man, it began to be regarded as an instrument
which should be made capable of being devoted to scientific
research.  Indeed, it may be claimed that, among the very
earliest aeronauts, those who had sailed away into the skies
and brought back intelligent observations or impressions of the
realm of cloud-land, or who had only described their own
sensations at lofty altitudes, had already contributed facts of
value to science.  It is time then, taking events in their due
sequence, that mention should be made of the endeavours of
various savants, who began about the commencement of the
nineteenth century to gather fresh knowledge from the
exploration of the air by balloon ascents organised with
fitting equipment.  The time had now come for promoting the
balloon to higher purposes than those of mere exhibition or
amusement.  In point of fact, it had already in one way been
turned to serious practical account.  It had been used by the
French during military operations in the revolutionary war as a
mode of reconnoitring, and not without success, so that when
after due trial the war balloon was judged of value a number of
similar balloons were constructed for the use of the various
divisions of the French army, and, as will be told in its
proper place, one, at least, of these was put to a positive
test before the battle of Fleurus.

But, returning to more strictly scientific ascents, which began
to be mooted at this period, we are at once impressed with the
widespread influence which the balloon was exercising on
thinking minds.  We note this from the fact that what must be
claimed to be the first genuine ascent for scientific
observation was made in altogether fresh ground, and at so
distant a spot as St. Petersburg.

It was now the year 1804, and the Russian Academy had
determined on attempting an examination of the physical
condition of the higher atmosphere by means of the balloon. 
The idea had probably been suggested by scientific observations
which had already been made on mountain heights by such
explorers as De Luc, Saussure, Humboldt, and others.  And now it
was determined that their results should be tested alongside
such observations as could be gathered in the free heaven far
removed from any disturbing effects that might be caused by
contiguity to earth.  The lines of enquiry to which special
attention was required were such as would be naturally
suggested by the scientific knowledge of the hour, though they
may read somewhat quaintly to-day.  Would there be any change
in the intensity of the magnetic force?  Any change in the
inclination of the magnetised needle?  Would evaporation find a
new law?  Would solar rays increase in power?  What amount of
electric matter would be found?  What change in the colours
produced by the prism?  What would be the constitution of the
higher and more attenuated air?  What physical effect would it
have on human and bird life?

The ascent was made at 7.15 on a summer evening by M. Robertson
and the Academician, M. Sacharof, to whom we are indebted for
the following resume of notes, which have a special value as
being the first of their class.  Rising slowly, a difference of
atmosphere over the Neva gave the balloon a downward motion,
necessitating the discharge of ballast.  As late as 8.45 p.m. 
a fine view was obtained of the Newski Islands, and the whole
course of the neighbouring river.  At 9.20 p.m., when the
barometer had fallen from 30 inches to 23 inches, a canary and
a dove were dismissed, the former falling precipitately, while
the latter sailed down to a village below.  All available
ballast was now thrown out, including a spare great coat and
the remains of supper, with the result that at 9.30 the
barometer had fallen to 22 inches, and at this height they
caught sight of the upper rim of the sun.  The action of heart
and lungs remained normal.  No stars were seen, though the sky
was mainly clear, such clouds as were visible appearing white
and at a great height.  The echo of a speaking trumpet was
heard after an interval of ten seconds.  This was substantially
the outcome of the experiments.  The practical difficulties of
carrying out prearranged observations amid the inconvenience of
balloon travel were much felt.  Their instruments were
seriously damaged, and their results, despite most painstaking
and praiseworthy efforts, must be regarded as somewhat
disappointing.

But ere the autumn of the same year two other scientific
ascents, admirably schemed and financed at the public expense,
had been successfully carried out at Paris in a war balloon
which, as will be told, had at this time been returned from
military operations in Egypt.  In the first of these, Gay
Lussac ascended in company with M. Biot, with very complete
equipment.  Choosing ten o'clock in the morning for their hour
of departure, they quickly entered a region of thin, but wet
fog, after which they shot up into denser cloud, which they
completely surmounted at a height of 6,500 feet, when they
described the upper surface as bearing the resemblance,
familiar enough to aeronauts and mountaineers, as of a white
sea broken up into gently swelling billows, or of an extended
plain covered with snow.

A series of simple experiments now embarked upon showed the
behaviour of magnetised iron, as also of a galvanic pile or
battery, to remain unaltered.  As their altitude increased
their pulses quickened, though beyond feeling keenly the
contrast of a colder air and of scorching rays of the sun they
experienced no physical discomfort.  At 11,000 feet a linnet
which they liberated fell to the earth almost helplessly, while
a pigeon with difficulty maintained an irregular and
precipitate flight.  A carefully compiled record was made of
variations of temperature and humidity, and they succeeded in
determining that the upper air was charged with negative
electricity.  In all this these two accomplished physicists may
be said to have carried out a brilliant achievement, even
though their actual results may seem somewhat meagre.  They not
only were their own aeronauts, but succeeded in arranging and
carrying out continuous and systematic observations throughout
the period of their remaining in the sky.

This voyage was regarded as such a pronounced success that
three weeks later, in mid-September, Gay Lussac was induced to
ascend again, this time alone, and under circumstances that
should enable him to reach an exceptionally high altitude. 
Experience had taught the advisability of certain modifications
in his equipment.  A magnet was ingeniously slung with a view
of testing its oscillation even in spite of accidental
gyrations in the balloon.  Thermometers and hygrometers were
carefully sheltered from the direct action of the sun, and
exhausted flasks were supplied with the object of bringing down
samples of upper air for subsequent analysis.

Again it was an early morning ascent, with a barometer on the
ground standing at 30.6 inches, and a slightly misty air. 
Lussac appears to have accomplished the exceedingly difficult
task of counting the oscillations of his magnet with
satisfaction to himself.  At 10,000 feet twenty vibrations
occupied 83 seconds, as compared with 84.33 seconds at the
earth's surface.  The variation of the compass remained
unaltered, as also the behaviour of magnetised iron at all
altitudes.  Keeping his balloon under perfect control, and
maintaining a uniform and steady ascent, he at the same time
succeeded in compiling an accurate table of readings recording
atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity, and it is
interesting to find that he was confronted with an apparent
anomaly which will commonly present itself to the aeronaut
observer.  Up to 12,000 feet the temperature had decreased
consistently from 82 degrees to 47 degrees, after which it
increased 6 degrees in the next 2,000 feet.  This by no means
uncommon experience shall be presently discussed.  The balloon
was now steadily manoeuvred up to 18,636 feet, at which height
freezing point was practically reached.  Then with a further
climb 20,000 feet is recorded, at which altitude the ardent
philosopher could still attend to his magnetic observations,
nor is his arduous and unassisted task abandoned here, but with
marvellous pertinacity he yet struggled upwards till a height
of no less than 23,000 feet is recorded, and the thermometer
had sunk to 14 degrees F.  Four miles and a quarter above the
level of the sea, reached by a solitary aerial explorer, whose
legitimate training lay apart from aeronautics, and whose main
care was the observation of the philosophical instruments he
carried!  The achievement of this French savant makes a
brilliant record in the early pages of our history.

It is not surprising that Lussac should own to having felt no
inconsiderable personal discomfort before his venture was over. 
In spite of warm clothing he suffered greatly from cold and
benumbed fingers, not less also from laboured breathing and a
quickened pulse; headache supervened, and his throat became
parched and unable to swallow food.  In spite of all, he
conducted the descent with the utmost skill, climbing down
quietly and gradually till he alighted with gentle ease at St. 
Gourgen, near Rouen.  It may be mentioned here that the
analysis of the samples of air which he had brought down proved
them to contain the normal proportion of oxygen, and to be
essentially identical, as tested in the laboratory, with the
free air secured at the surface of the earth.

The sudden and apparently unaccountable variation in
temperature recorded by Lussac is a striking revelation to an
aerial observer, and becomes yet more marked when more
sensitive instruments are used than those which were taken up
on the occasion just related.  It will be recorded in a future
chapter how more suitable instruments came in course of time to
be devised.  It is only necessary to point out at this stage
that instruments which lack due sensibility will unavoidably
read too high in ascents, and too low in descents where,
according to the general law, the air is found to grow
constantly colder with elevation above the earth's surface.  It
is strong evidence of considerable efficiency in the
instruments, and of careful attention on the part of the
observer, that Lussac was able to record the temporary
inversion of the law of change of temperature above-mentioned. 
Had he possessed modern instrumental equipment he would have
brought down a yet more remarkable account of the upper regions
which he visited, and learned that the variations of heat and
cold were considerably more striking than he supposed.

With a specially devised instrument used with special
precautions, the writer, as will be shown hereafter, has been
able to prove that the temperature of the air, as traversed in
the wayward course of a balloon, is probably far more variable
and complex than has been recorded by most observers.

The exceptional height claimed to have been reached by Gay
Lassac need not for a moment be questioned, and the fact that
he did not experience the same personal inconvenience as has
been complained of by mountain climbers at far less altitudes
admits of ready explanation.  The physical exertion demanded of
the mountaineer is entirely absent in the case of an aeronaut
who is sailing at perfect ease in a free balloon.  Moreover, it
must be remembered that--a most important consideration--the
aerial voyager, necessarily travelling with the wind, is
unconscious, save at exceptional moments, of any breeze
whatever, and it is a well-established fact that a degree of
cold which might be insupportable when a breeze is stirring may
be but little felt in dead calm.  It should also be remembered,
in duly regarding Gay Lussac's remarkable record, that this was
not his first experience of high altitudes, and it is an
acknowledged truth that an aeronaut, especially if he be an
enthusiast, quickly becomes acclimatised to his new element,
and sufficiently inured to its occasional rigours.



CHAPTER V. SOME FAMOUS EARLY VOYAGERS.


During certain years which now follow it will possibly be
thought that our history, so far as incidents of special
interest are concerned, somewhat languishes.  Yet it may be
wrong to regard this period as one of stagnation or
retrogression.

Before passing on to later annals, however, we must duly
chronicle certain exceptional achievements and endeavours as
yet unmentioned, which stand out prominently in the period we
have been regarding as also in the advancing years of the new
century Among these must in justice be included those which
come into the remarkable, if somewhat pathetic subsequent
career of the brilliant, intrepid Lunardi.

Compelling everywhere unbounded admiration he readily secured
the means necessary for carrying out further exploits wherever
he desired while at the same time he met with a measure of good
fortune in freedom from misadventure such as has generally been
denied to less bold adventurers.  Within a few months of the
time when we left him, the popular hero and happy recipient of
civic and royal favours, we find him in Scotland attempting
feats which a knowledge of practical difficulties bids us
regard as extraordinary.

To begin with, nothing appears more remarkable than the ease,
expedition, and certainty with which in days when necessary
facilities must have been far harder to come by than now, he
could always fill his balloon by the usually tedious and
troublesome mode attending hydrogen inflation.  We see him at
his first Scottish ascent, completing the operation in little
more than two hours.  It is the same later at Glasgow, where,
commencing with only a portion of his apparatus, he finds the
inflation actually to proceed too rapidly for his purpose, and
has to hold the powers at his command strongly in check. 
Later, in December weather, having still further improved his
apparatus, he makes his balloon support itself after  the
inflation of only ten minutes.  Then, as if assured of
impunity, he treats recognised risks with a species of
contempt.  At Kelso he hails almost with joy the fact that the
wind must carry him rapidly towards the sea, which in the end
he narrowly escapes.  At Glasgow the chances of safe landing
are still more against him, yet he has no hesitation in
starting, and at last the catastrophe he seemed to court
actually overtook him, and he plumped into the sea near
Berwick, where no sail was even in sight, and a winter's night
coming on.  From this predicament he was rescued by a special
providence which once before had not deserted him, when in a
tumult of violent and contrary currents, and at a great height
to boot, his gallery was almost completely carried away, and he
had to cling on to the hoop desperately with both hands.

Then we lose sight of the dauntless, light-hearted Italian for
one-and-twenty years, when in the Gentleman's Magazine of July
31, 1806, appears the brief line, "Died in the convent of
Barbadinas, of a decline, Mr. Vincent Lunardi, the celebrated
aeronaut."

Garnerin, of whom mention has already been made, accomplished
in the summer of 1802 two aerial voyages marked by extreme
velocity in the rate of travel.  The first of these is also
remarkable as having been the first to fairly cross the heart
of London.  Captain Snowdon, R.N., accompanied the aeronaut. 
The ascent took place from Chelsea Gardens, and proved so great
an attraction that the crowd overflowed into the neighbouring
parts of the town, choking up the thoroughfares with vehicles,
and covering the river with boats.  On being liberated, the
balloon sped rapidly away, taking a course midway between the
river and the main highway of the Strand, Fleet Street, and
Cheapside, and so passed from view of the multitude.  Such a
departure could hardly fail to lead to subsequent adventures,
and this is pithily told in a letter written by Garnerin
himself:  "I take the earliest opportunity of informing you
that after a very pleasant journey, but after the most
dangerous descent I ever made, on account of the boisterous
weather and the vicinity of the sea, we alighted at the
distance of four miles from this place and sixty from Ranelagh. 
We were only three-quarters of an hour on the way.  To-night I
intend to be in London with the balloon, which is torn to
pieces.  We ourselves are all over bruises."

Only a week after the same aeronaut ascended again from
Marylebone, when he attained almost the same velocity, reaching
Chingford, a distance of seventeen miles, in fifteen minutes.

The chief danger attending a balloon journey in a high wind,
supposing no injury has been sustained in filling and
launching, results not so much from impact with the ground on
alighting as from the subsequent almost inevitable dragging
along the ground.  The grapnels, spurning the open, will often
obtain no grip save in a hedge or tree, and even then large
boughs will be broken through or dragged away, releasing the
balloon on a fresh career which may, for a while, increase in
mad impetuosity as the emptying silk offers a deeper hollow for
the wind to catch.

The element of risk is of another nature in the case of a night
ascent, when the actual alighting ground cannot be duly chosen
or foreseen.  Among many record night ascents may here,
somewhat by anticipation of events, be mentioned two embarked
upon by the hero of our last adventure.  M. Garnerin was
engaged to make a spectacular ascent from Tivoli at Paris,
leaving the grounds at night with attached lamps illuminating
his balloon.  His first essay was on a night of ear]y August,
when he ascended at 11 p.m., reaching a height of nearly three
miles.  Remaining aloft through the hours of darkness, he
witnessed the sun rise at half-past two in the morning, and
eventually came to earth after a journey of some seven hours,
during which time he had covered considerably more than a
hundred miles.  A like bold adventure carried out from the same
grounds the following month was attended with graver peril.  A
heavy thunderstorm appearing imminent, Garnerin elected to
ascend with great rapidity, with the result that his balloon,
under the diminished pressure, quickly became distended to an
alarming degree, and he was reduced to the necessity of
piercing a hole in the silk, while for safety's sake he
endeavoured to extinguish all lamps within reach.  He now lost
all control over his balloon, which became unmanageable in the
conflict of the storm.  Having exhausted his ballast, he
presently was rudely brought to earth and then borne against a
mountain side, finally losing consciousness until the balloon
had found anchorage three hundred miles away from Paris.

A night ascent, which reads as yet more sensational and
extraordinary, is reported to have been made a year or two
previously, and when it is considered that the balloon used was
of the Montgolfier type the account as it is handed down will
be allowed to be without parallel.  It runs thus:  Count
Zambeccari, Dr. Grassati of Rome, and M. Pascal Andreoli of
Antona ascended on a November night from Bologna, allowing
their balloon to rise with excessive velocity.  In consequence
of this rapid transition to an extreme altitude the Count and
the Doctor became insensible, leaving Andreoli alone in
possession of his faculties.  At two o'clock in the morning
they found themselves descending over the Adriatic, at which
time a lantern which they carried expired and was with
difficulty re-lighted.  Continuing to descend, they presently
pitched in to the sea and became drenched with salt water.  It
may seem surprising that the balloon, which could not be
prevented falling in the water, is yet enabled to ascend from
the grip of the waves by the mere discharge of ballast.  (It
would be interesting to inquire what meanwhile happened to the
fire which they presumably carried with them.)  They now rose
into regions of cloud, where they became covered with hoar
frost and also stone deaf.  At 3 a.m. they were off the coast
of Istria, once more battling with the waves till picked up by
a shore boat.  The balloon, relieved of their weight, then flew
away into Turkey.

However overdrawn this narrative may appear, it must be read in
the light of another account, the bare, hard facts of which can
admit of no question.  It is five years later, and once again
Count Zambeccari is ascending from Bologna, this time in
company with Signor Bonagna.  Again it is a Montgolfier or fire
balloon, and on nearing earth it becomes entangled in a tree
and catches fire.  The aeronauts jump for their lives, and the
Count is killed on the spot.  Certainly, when every allowance
is made for pardonable or unintentional exaggeration, it must
be conceded that there were giants in those days.  Giants in
the conception and accomplishment of deeds of lofty daring. 
Men who came scathless through supreme danger by virtue of the
calmness and courage with which they withstood it.

Among other appalling disasters we have an example of a
terrific descent from a vast height in which the adventurers
yet escape with their lives.  It was the summer of 1808, and
the aeronauts, MM. Andreoli and Brioschi, ascending from Padua,
reach a height at which a barometer sinks to eight inches,
indicating upwards of 30,000 feet.  At this point the balloon
bursts, and falls precipitately near Petrarch's tomb. 
Commenting on this, Mr. Glaisher, the value of whose opinion is
second to none, is not disposed to question the general truth
of the narrative.  In regard to Zambeccari's escape from the
sea related above, it should be stated that in the case of a
gas-inflated balloon which has no more than dipped its car or
gallery in the waves, it is generally perfectly possible to
raise it again from the water, provided there is on board a
store of ballast, the discharge of which will sufficiently
lighten the balloon.  A case in point occurred in a most
romantic and perilous voyage accomplished by Mr. Sadler on the
1st of October, 1812.

His adventure is one of extraordinary interest, and of no
little value to the practical aeronaut.  The following account
is condensed from Mr. Sadler's own narrative.  He started from
the grounds of Belvedere House, Dublin, with the expressed
intention of endeavouring to cross over the Irish Channel to
Liverpool. There appear to have been two principal air drifts,
an upper and a lower, by means of which he entertained fair
hopes of steering his desired course.  But from the outset he
was menaced with dangers and difficulties.  Ere he had left the
land he discovered a rent in his silk which, occasioned by some
accident before leaving, showed signs of extending.  To reach
this, it was necessary to extemporise by means of a rope a
species of ratlins by which he could climb the rigging.  He
then contrived to close the rent with his neckcloth.  He was,
by this time, over the sea, and, manoeuvring his craft by aid
of the two currents at his disposal, he was carried to the
south shore of the Isle of Man, whence he was confident of
being able, had he desired it, of landing in Cumberland.  This,
however, being contrary to his intention, he entrusted himself
to the higher current, and by it was carried to the north-west
of Holyhead.  Here he dropped once again to the lower current,
drifting south of the Skerry Lighthouse across the Isle of
Anglesea, and at 4.30 p.m. found himself abreast of the Great
Orme's Head.  Evening now approaching, he had determined to
seek a landing, but at this critical juncture the wind shifted
to the southward, and he became blown out to sea.  Then, for an
hour, he appears to have tried high and low for a more
favourable current, but without success; and, feeling the
danger of his situation, and, moreover, sighting no less than
five vessels beating down the Channel, he boldly descended in
the sea about a mile astern of them.  He must for certain have
been observed by these vessels; but each and all held on their
course, and, thus deserted, the aeronaut had no choice but to
discharge ballast, and, quitting the waves, to regain his
legitimate element.  His experiences at this period of his
extraordinary voyage are best told in his own words.  "At the
time I descended the sun was near setting Already the shadows
of evening had cast a dusky hue over the face of the ocean, and
a crimson glow purpled the tops of the waves as, heaving in the
evening breeze, they died away in distance, or broke in foam
against the sides of the vessels, and before I rose from the
sea the orb had sunk below the horizon, leaving only the
twilight glimmer to light the vast expanse around me.  How
great, therefore, was my astonishment, and how incapable is
expression to convey an adequate idea of my feelings when,
rising to the upper region of the air, the sun, whose parting
beams I had already witnessed, again burst on my view, and
encompassed me with the full blaze of day.  Beneath me hung the
shadows of even, whilst the clear beams of the sun glittered on
the floating vehicle which bore me along rapidly before the
wind."

After a while he sights three more vessels, which signify their
willingness to stand by, whereupon he promptly descends,
dropping beneath the two rear-most of them.  From this point
the narrative of the sinking man, and the gallant attempt at
rescue, will rival any like tale of the sea.  For the wind, now
fast rising, caught the half empty balloon so soon as the car
touched the sea, and the vessel astern, though in full pursuit,
was wholly unable to come up.  Observing this, Mr. Sadler,
trusting more to the vessel ahead, dropped his grappling iron
by way of drag, and shortly afterwards tried the further
expedient of taking off his clothes and attaching them to the
iron.  The vessels, despite these endeavours, failing to
overhaul him, he at last, though with reasonable reluctance,
determined to further cripple the craft that bore him so
rapidly by liberating a large quantity of gas, a desperate,
though necessary, expedient which nearly cost him his life.

For the car now instantly sank, and the unfortunate man,
clutching at the hoop, found he could not even so keep himself
above the water, and was reduced to clinging, as a last hope,
to the netting.  The result of this could be foreseen, for he
was frequently plunged under water by the mere rolling of the
balloon.  Cold and exertion soon told on him, as he clung
frantically to the valve rope, and when his strength failed him
he actually risked the expedient of passing his head through
the meshes of the net.  It was obvious that for avail help must
soon come; yet the pursuing vessel, now close, appeared to hold
off, fearing to become entangled in the net, and in this
desperate extremity, fainting from exhaustion and scarcely able
to cry aloud, Mr. Sadler himself seems to have divined the
chance yet left; for, summoning his failing strength, he
shouted to the sailors to run their bowsprit through his
balloon.  This was done, and the drowning man was hauled on
board with the life scarcely in him.

A fitting sequel to the above adventure followed five years
afterwards.  The Irish Sea remained unconquered.  No balloonist
had as yet ever crossed its waters. Who would attempt the feat
once more?  Who more worthy than the hero's own son, Mr.
Windham Sadler?

This aspiring aeronaut, emulating his father's enterprising
spirit, chose the same starting ground at Dublin, and on the
longest day of 1817, when winds seemed favourable, left the
Porto Bello barracks at 1.20 p.m.  His endeavour was to "tack"
his course by such currents as he should find, in the manner
attempted by his father, and at starting the ground current
blew favourably from the W.S.W.  He, however, allowed his
balloon to rise to too high an altitude, where he must have
been taken aback by a contrary drift; for, on descending again
through a shower of snow, he found himself no further than Ben
Howth, as yet only ten miles on his long journey.  Profiting by
his mistake, he thenceforward, by skilful regulation, kept his
balloon within due limits, and successfully maintained a direct
course across the sea, reaching a spot in Wales not far from
Holyhead an hour and a half before sundown.  The course taken
was absolutely the shortest possible, being little more than
seventy miles, which he traversed in five hours.

From this period of our story, noteworthy events in
aeronautical history grow few and far between.  As a mere
exhibition the novelty of a balloon ascent had much worn off. 
No experimentalist was ready with any new departure in the art. 
No fresh adventure presented itself to the minds of the more
enterprising spirits; and, whereas a few years previously
ballooning exploits crowded into every summer season and were
not neglected even in winter months, there is now for a while
little to chronicle, either abroad or in our own country.  A
certain revival of the sensational element in ballooning was
occasionally witnessed, and not without mishap, as in the case
of Madame Blanchard, who, in the summer of 1819, ascending at
night with fireworks from the Tivoli Gardens, Paris, managed to
set fire to her balloon and lost her life in her terrific fall. 
Half a dozen years later a Mr., as also Mrs., Graham figure
before the public in some bold spectacular ascents.

But the fame of any aeronaut of that date must inevitably pale
before the dawning light shed by two stars of the first
magnitude that were arising in two opposite parts of the
world--Mr. John Wise in America, and Mr. Charles Green in our
own country.  The latter of these, who has been well styled the
"Father of English Aeronautics," now entered on a long and
honoured career of so great importance and success that we must
reserve for him a separate and special chapter.



CHAPTER VI. CHARLES GREEN AND THE NASSAU BALLOON.


The balloon, which had gradually been dropping out of favour,
had now been virtually laid aside, and, to all appearance,
might have continued so, when, as if by chance concurrence of
events, there arrived both the hour and the man to restore it
to the world, and to invest it with a new practicability and
importance.  The coronation of George the Fourth was at hand,
and this became a befitting occasion for the rare genius
mentioned at the end of the last chapter, and now in his
thirty-sixth year, to put in practice a new method of balloon
management and inflation, the entire credit of which must be
accorded to him alone.

From its very introduction and inception the gas balloon, an
expensive and fragile structure in itself, had proved at all
times exceedingly costly in actual use.  Indeed, we find that
at the date at which we have now arrived the estimate for
filling a balloon of 70,000 cubic feet--no extraordinary
capacity--with hydrogen gas was about L250.  When, then, to
this great outlay was added the difficulty and delay of
producing a sufficient supply by what was at best a clumsy
process, as also the positive failure and consequent
disappointment which not infrequently ensued, it is easy to
understand how through many years balloon ascents, no longer a
novelty, had begun to be regarded with distrust, and the
profession of a balloonist was doomed to become unremunerative. 
A simpler and cheaper mode of inflation was not only a
desideratum, but an absolute necessity.  The full truth of this
may be gathered from the fact that we find there were not
seldom instances where two or three days of continuous and
anxious labour were expended in generating and passing hydrogen
into a balloon, through the fabric of which the subtle gas
would escape almost as fast as it was produced.

It was at this juncture, then, that Charles Green conceived the
happy idea of substituting for hydrogen gas the ordinary
household gas, which at this time was to be found ready to hand
and in sufficient quantity in all towns of any consequence; and
by the day of the coronation all was in readiness for a public
exhibition of this method of inflation, which was carried out
with complete success, though not altogether without unrehearsed
and amusing incident, as must be told.

The day, July 18, was one of summer heat, and Green at the
conclusion of his preparations, fatigued with anxious labour
and oppressed by the crowding of the populace, took refuge
within the car of his balloon, which was by that time already
inflated, and only awaiting the gun signal that was to announce
the moment for its departure.  To allow of his gaining the
refreshment of somewhat purer air he begged his friends who
were holding the car of his balloon in restraint to keep it
suspended at a few feet from the earth, while he rested himself
within, and, this being done, it would appear that he fell into
a doze, from which he did not awake till he found that the
balloon, which had slipped from his friends' hold, was already
high above the crowd and requiring his prompt attention.  This
was, however, by no means an untoward accident, and Green's
triumph was complete.  By this one venture alone the success of
the new method was entirely assured.  The cost of the inflation
had been reduced ten-fold, the labour and uncertainty a
hundred-fold, and, over and above all, the confidence of the
public was restored.  It is little wonder, then, that in the
years that now follow we find the balloon returning to all the
favour it had enjoyed in its palmiest days.  But Green proved
himself something more than a practical balloonist of the first
rank.  He brought to the aid of his profession ideas which were
matured by due thought and scientifically sound.  It is true he
still clung for a while to the antiquated notion that
mechanical means could, with advantage, be used to cause a
balloon to ascend or descend, or to alter its direction in a
tranquil atmosphere.  But he saw clearly that the true method
of navigating a balloon should be by a study of upper currents,
and this he was able to put to practical proof on a memorable
occasion, and in a striking manner, as we shall presently
relate.

He learned the lesson early in his career while acquiring facts
and experience, unassisted, in a number of solitary voyages
made from different parts of the country.  Among these he is
careful to record an occasion when, making a day-light ascent
from Boston, Lincolnshire, he maintained a lofty course, which
promised to take him direct to Grantham; but, presently
descending to a lower level, and his balloon diverging at an
angle of some 45 degrees, he now headed for Newark.  This
experience he stored away.

A month later we find him making a night voyage from Vauxhall
Gardens, destined to be the scene of many memorable ascents in
the near future; and on this occasion he gave proof of his
capability as a close and intelligent observer.  It was a July
night, near 11 p.m., moonless and cloudy, yet the earth was
visible, and under these circumstances his simple narrative
becomes of scientific value.  He accurately distinguished the
reflective properties of the face of the diversified country he
traversed.  Over Battersea and Wandsworth--this was in
1826--there were white sheets spread over the land, which proved
to be corn crops ready for the sickle.  Where crops were not the
ground was darker, with, here and there, objects absolutely
black--in other words, trees and houses.  Then he mentions the
river in a memorandum, which reads strangely to the aeronaut who
has made the same night voyage in these latter days.  The stream
was crossed in places with rows of lamps apparently resting on
the water.  These were the lighted bridges; but, here and there,
were dark planks, and these too were bridges--at Battersea and
Putney--but without a light upon them!

In these and many other simple, but graphic, narratives Green
draws his own pictures of Nature in her quieter moods.  But he
was not without early experience of her horse play, a highly
instructive record of which should not be omitted here, and
which, as coming from so careful and conscientious an observer,
is best gathered from his own words.  The ascent was from
Newbury, and it can have been no mean feat to fill, under
ordinary circumstances, a balloon carrying two passengers and a
considerable weight of ballast at the small gas-holder which
served the town eighty-five years ago.  But the circumstances
were not ordinary, for the wind was extremely squally; a
tremendous hail and thunderstorm blew up, and a hurricane swept
the balloon with such force that two tons weight of iron and a
hundred men scarce sufficed to hold it in check.

Green on this occasion had indeed a companion, whose usefulness
however at a pinch may be doubted when we learn that he was
both deaf and dumb.  The rest of the narrative runs thus: 
"Between 4 and 5 p.m. the clouds dispersed, but the wind
continued to rage with unabated fury the whole of the evening. 
At 6 p.m. I stepped into the car with Mr. Simmons and gave the
word 'Away!'  The moment the machine was disencumbered of its
weights it was torn by the violence of the wind from the
assistants, bounded off with the velocity of lightning in a
southeasterly direction, and in a very short space of time
attained an elevation of two miles.  At this altitude we
perceived two immense bodies of clouds operated on by contrary
currents of air until at length they became united, and at that
moment my ears were assailed by the most awful and longest
continued peal of thunder I have ever heard.  These clouds were
a full mile beneath us, but perceiving other strata floating at
the same elevation at which we were sailing, which from their
appearance I judged to be highly charged with electricity, I
considered it prudent to discharge twenty pounds of ballast,
and we rose half a mile above our former elevation, where I
considered we were perfectly safe and beyond their influence. 
I observed, amongst other phenomena, that at every discharge of
thunder all the detached pillars of clouds within the distance
of a mile around became attracted and appeared to concentrate
their force towards the first body of clouds alluded to,
leaving the atmosphere clear and calm beneath and around us.

"With very trifling variations we continued the same course
until 7.15 p.m., when we descended to within 500 feet of the
earth; but, perceiving from the disturbed surface of the rivers
and lakes that a strong wind existed near the earth, we again
ascended and continued our course till 7.30 p.m., when a final
descent was safely effected in a meadow field in the parish of
Crawley in Surrey, situated between Guildford and Horsham, and
fifty-eight miles from Newbury.  This stormy voyage was
performed in one hour and a half."

It was after Green had followed his profession for fifteen
years that he was called upon to undertake the management of an
aerial venture, which, all things considered, has never been
surpassed in genuine enterprise and daring.  The conception of
the project was due to Mr. Robert Hollond, and it took shape in
this way.  This gentleman, fresh from Cambridge, possessed of
all the ardour of early manhood, as also of adequate means, had
begun to devote himself with the true zeal of the enthusiast to
the pursuit of ballooning, finding due opportunity for this in
his friendship with Mr. Green, who enjoyed the management of
the fine balloon made for ascents at the then popular Vauxhall
Gardens.  In the autumn of 1836 the proprietors of this balloon,
contemplating making an exhibition of an ascent from Paris, and
requiring their somewhat fragile property to be conveyed to
that city, Mr. Hollond boldly came forward and offered to
transfer it thither, and, as nearly as this might be possible,
by passage through the sky.  The proposal was accepted, and Mr.
Holland, in conjunction with Green, set about the needful
preparations.  These, as will appear, were on an extraordinary
scale, and no blame is to be imputed on that account, as a
little consideration will show.  For the venture proposed was
not to be that of merely crossing the Channel, which, as we
have seen, had been successfully effected no less than fifty
years before.  The voyage in contemplation was to be from
London; it was, moreover, to be pursued through a long,
moonless winter's night, and under conditions of which no
living aeronaut had had actual experience.

Calculation, based on a sufficient knowledge of fast upper
currents, told that their course, ere finished, might be one of
almost indefinite length, and it is not too much to say that no
one, with the knowledge of that day, could predict within a
thousand miles where the dawn of the next day might find them.
The equipment, therefore, was commensurate with the possible
task before them.  To begin with, they limited their number to
three in all--Mr. Hollond, as chief and keeper of the log; Mr.
Green, as aeronaut; and an enthusiastic colleague, Mr. Monck
Mason, as the chronicler of the party.  Next, they provided
themselves with passports to all parts of the Continent; and
then came the fitting out and victualling of the aerial craft
itself, calculated to carry some 90,000 cubic feet of gas, and
a counterpoise of a ton of ballast, which took the form partly
of actual provisions in large quantity, partly of gear and
apparatus, and for the rest of sand and also lime, of which
more anon.  Across the middle of the car was fixed a bench to
serve as table, and also as a stage for the winding in and out
of an enormous trail rope a thousand feet long, designed by Mr.
Green to meet the special emergencies of the voyage.  At the
bottom of the car was spread a large cushion to serve the
purposes of rest.  When all was in readiness unfitness of
weather baulked the travellers for some days, but Monday, the
7th of November, was judged a favourable day, so that the
inflation was rapidly proceeded with, and at 1.30 p.m. the
"Monstre Balloon," as it was entitled in the "Ingoldsby
Legends," left the earth on her eventful and ever memorable
voyage.  The weather was fine and promising, and, rising with a
moderate breeze from the N.W., they began to traverse the
northern parts of Kent, while light, drifting upper clouds gave
indication of other possible currents.  Mr. Hollond was precise
in the determination of times and of all readings and we learn
that at exactly 2.48 p.m. they were crossing the Medway, six
miles west of Rochester, while at 4.5 p.m. the lofty towers of
Canterbury were well in view, two miles to the east, and here a
little function was well carried out.  Green had twice ascended
from this city under patronage of the authorities, and the idea
occurred to the party that it would be a graceful compliment to
drop a message to the Mayor as they passed.  A suitable note,
therefore, quickly written, was dismissed in a parachute, and it
may be mentioned that this, as also a similar missive addressed
later to the Mayor of Dover, were duly received and
acknowledged.

At a quarter past four they sighted the sea, and here, the air
beginning to grow chill, the balloon dropped earthward, and for
some miles they skimmed the ground, disturbing the partridges,
scattering the rooks, and keeping up a running conversation the
while with labourers and passers below.  In this there was
exercise of perfectly proper aerial seamanship, such as
moreover presently led to an exhibition of true science.  To
save ballast is, with a balloon, to prolong life, and this may
often best be done by flying low, which doubtless was Green's
present intention.  But soon his trained eye saw that the
ground current which now carried them was leading them astray. 
They were trending to the northward, and so far out of their
course that they would soon make the North Foreland, and so be
carried out over the North Sea far from their desired
direction.  Thereupon Green attempted to put in practice his
theory, already spoken of, of steering by upper currents, and
the event proved his judgment peculiarly correct.  "Nothing,"
wrote Mr. Monck Mason, "could exceed the beauty of the
manoeuvre, to which the balloon at once responded, regaining her
due course, and, in a matter of a few minutes only, bearing the
voyagers almost vertically over the castle of Dover in the exact
line for crossing the straits between that town and Calais."

So far all was well, and success had been extraordinary; but
from this moment they became faced with new conditions, and with
the grave trouble of uncertainty.  Light was failing, the sea
was before them, and--what else thenceforth?  4.48 p.m. was
recorded as the moment when the first line of breaking waves was
seen directly below them, and then the English coast line began
rapidly to fade out from their view.  But, ahead, the obscurity
was yet more intense, for clouds, banked up like a solid wall,
crowned along its frowning heights, with "parapets and turrets
and batteries and bastions," and, plunging into this opposing
barrier, they were quickly buried in blackness, losing at the
same time over the sea all sound from earth soever.  So for a
short hour's space, when the sound of waves once again broke in
upon them, and immediately afterwards emerging from the dense
cloud (a sea-fog merely) they found themselves immediately over
the brilliantly lighted town of Calais.  Seeing this, the
travellers attempted to signal by igniting and lowering a Bengal
Light, which was directly followed by the beating of drums from
below.

It adds a touch of reality, as well as cheerfulness, to the
narrative to read that at this period of their long journey the
travellers apply themselves to a fair, square meal, the first
for twelve hours, despite the day's excitement and toil.  We
have an entry among the stores of the balloon of wine bottles
and spirit flasks, but there is no mention of these being
requisitioned at this period.  The demand seems rather to have
been for coffee--coffee hot; and this by a novel device was
soon prepared.  It goes without saying that a fire or flame of
any kind, except with special precautions, is inadmissable in a
balloon; but a cooking heat, sufficient for the present purpose,
was supplied from the store of lime, a portion of which, being
placed in a suitably contrived vessel and slaked quickly,
procured the desired beverage.

This meal now indulged in seems to have been heartily and
happily enjoyed; and from this point, for a while, the
narrative becomes that of enthusiastic and delighted
travellers. In the gloom below, for leagues around, they
regarded the scattered fires of a watchful population, with
here and there the lights of larger towns, and the
contemplation begot romantic reveries.  "Were they not amid the
vast solitudes of the skies, in the dead of night, unknown and
unnoticed, secretly and silently reviewing kingdoms, exploring
territories, and surveying cities all clothed in the dark mantle
of mystery?"  Presently they identified the blazing city of
Liege, with the lurid lights of extensive outlying iron works,
and this was the last visible sign they caught of earth that
night; save, at least, when occasional glimpses of lightning
momentarily and dimly outlined the world in the abyss below.

Ere long, they met with their first discomfort, which they seem
to have regarded as a most serious one, namely, the accidental
dropping overboard of their cherished coffee-boiling apparatus. 
With its loss their store of lime became useless, save as
ballast, and for this it was forthwith utilised until nothing
remained but the empty lime barrel itself, which, being
regarded as an objectionable encumbrance, it was desirable to
get rid of, were it not for the risk involved in rudely
dropping it to earth.  But the difficulty was met.  They
possessed a suitable small parachute, and, attached to this, the
barrel was allowed to float earthward.

As hours advanced, the blackness of night increased, and their
impressions appear somewhat strange to anyone familiar with
ordinary night travel in the sky.  Mr. Monck Mason compares
their progress through the darkness to "cleaving their way
through an interminable mass of black marble."  Then,
presently, an unaccountable object puzzles and absorbs the
attention of all the party for a long period.  They were gazing
open-mouthed at a long narrow avenue of feeble light, which,
though apparently belonging to earth, was too long and regular
for a river, and too broad for a canal or road, and it was only
after many futile imaginings that they discovered they were
simply looking at a stay rope of the balloon hanging far out
over the side.

Somewhat later still, there was a more serious claim upon the
imagination.  It was half-past three in the morning, and the
balloon, which, to escape from too low an altitude, had been
liberally lightened, had now at high speed mounted to a vast
height.  And then, amid the black darkness and dead silence of
that appalling region, suddenly overhead came the sound of an
explosion, followed by the violent rustling of the silk, while
the car jerked violently, as though suddenly detached from its
hold.  This was the idea, leading to the belief that the
balloon had suddenly exploded, and that they were falling
headlong to earth.  Their suspense, however, cannot have been
long, and the incident was intelligible enough, being due to
the sudden yielding of stiffened net and silk under rapid
expansion caused by their speedy and lofty ascent.

The chief incidents of the night were now over, until the dawn
arrived and began to reveal a strange land, with large tracts
of snow, giving place, as the light strengthened, to vast
forests.  To their minds these suggested the plains of Poland,
if not the steppes of Russia, and, fearing that the country
further forward might prove more inhospitable, they decided to
come to earth as speedily as possible.  This, in spite of
difficult landing, they effected about the hour that the waking
population were moving abroad, and then, and not till then,
they learned the land of their haven--the heart of the German
forests.  Five hundred miles had been covered in eighteen hours
from start to finish!



CHAPTER VII. CHARLES GREEN--FURTHER ADVENTURES.


All history is liable to repeat itself, and that of aeronautics
forms no exception to the rule.  The second year after the
invention of the balloon the famous M. Blanchard, ascending
from Frankfort, landed near Weilburg, and, in commemoration of
the event, the flag he bore was deposited among the archives in
the ducal palace of that town.  Fifty-one years passed by when,
outside the same city, a yet more famous balloon effected its
landing, and with due ceremony its flag is presently laid
beside that of Blanchard in the same ducal palace.  The balloon
of the "Immortal Three," whose splendid voyage has just been
recounted, will ever be known by the title of the Great Nassau
Balloon, but the neighbourhood of its landing was that of the
town of Weilburg, in the Duchy of Nassau, whither the party
betook themselves, and where, during many days, they were
entertained with extravagant hospitality and honour until
business recalled Mr. Hollond home.

Green had now made upwards of two hundred ascents, and, though
he lived to make a thousand, it was impossible that he could
ever eclipse this last record.  It is true that the same Nassau
balloon, under his guidance, made many other most memorable
voyages, some of which it will be necessary to dwell on.  But,
to preserve a better chronology, we must first, without further
digression, approach an event which fills a dark page in our
annals; and, in so doing, we have to transfer our attention
from the balloon itself to its accessory, the parachute.

Twenty-three years before our present date, that is to say in
1814, Mr. Cocking delivered his views as to the proper form of
the parachute before the Society of Arts, who, as a mark of
approval, awarded him a medal.  This parachute, however, having
never taken practical shape, and only existing, figuratively
speaking, in the clouds, seemed unlikely to find its way there
in reality until the success of the Nassau adventure stirred
its inventor to strenuous efforts to give it an actual trial. 
Thus it came about that he obtained Mr. Green's co-operation in
the attempt he now undertook, and, though this ended
disastrously, for Mr. Cocking, the great professional aeronaut
can in no way soever be blamed for the tragic event.

The date of the trial was in July, 1837.  Mr. Cocking's
parachute was totally different in principle from that form
which, as we have seen, had met with a fair measure of success
at the hands of early experimenters; and on the eve of its
trial it was strongly denounced and condemned in the London
Press by the critic whom we have recently so freely quoted, Mr.
Monck Mason.

This able reasoner and aeronaut pointed out that the
contrivance about to be tested aimed at obviating two principal
drawbacks which the parachute had up to that time presented,
namely (1) the length of time which elapses before it becomes
sufficiently expanded, and (2) the oscillatory movement which
accompanies the descent.  In this new endeavour the inventor
caused his machine to be fixed rigidly open, and to assume the
shape of an inverted cone.  In other words, instead of its
being like an umbrella opened, it rather resembled an umbrella
blown inside out.  Taking, then, the shape and dimensions of
Mr. Cocking's structure as a basis for mathematical
calculation, as also its weight, which for required strength he
put at 500 lbs.  Mr. Monck Mason estimated that the adventurer
and his machine must attain in falling a velocity of some
twelve miles an hour.  In fact, his positive prediction was
that one of two events must inevitably take place.  "Either the
parachute would come to the ground with a force incompatible
with the safety of the individual, or should it be attempted to
make it sufficiently light to resist this conclusion, it must
give way beneath the forces which will develop in the descent."

This emphatic word of warning was neglected, and the result of
the terrible experiment can best be gathered from two principal
sources.  First, that of a special reporter writing from
terra-firma, and, secondly, that of Mr. Green himself, who
gives his own observations as made from the balloon in which he
took the unfortunate man and his invention into the sky.

The journalist, who first speaks of the enormous concourse that
gathered to see the ascent, not only within Vauxhall Gardens,
but on every vantage ground without, proceeds to tell of his
interview with Mr. Cocking himself, who, when questioned as to
the danger involved, remarked that none existed for him, and
that the greatest peril, if any, would attend the balloon when
suddenly relieved of his weight.  The proprietors of the
Gardens, as the hour approached, did their best to dissuade the
over-confident inventor, offering, themselves, to take the
consequences of any public disappointment.  This was again
without avail, and so, towards 6 p.m., Mr. Green, accompanied
by Mr. Spencer, a solicitor of whom this history will have more
to tell, entered the balloon, which was then let up about 40
feet that the parachute might be affixed below.  A little
later, Mr. Cocking, casting aside his heavy coat and tossing
off a glass of wine, entered his car and, amid deafening
acclamations, with the band playing the National Anthem, the
balloon and aeronauts above, and he himself in his parachute
swinging below, mounted into the heavens, passing presently, in
the gathering dusk, out of view of the Gardens.

The sequel should be gathered from Mr. Green's own narrative. 
Previous to starting, 650 lbs. of ballast had to be discarded
to gain buoyancy sufficient to raise the massive machine. 
This, together with another 100 lbs., which was also required
to be ejected owing to the cooling of the air, was passed out
through a canvas tube leading downwards through a hole in the
parachute, an ingenious contrivance which would prevent the
sand thrown out from the balloon falling on the slender
structure itself.  On quitting the earth, however, this latter
set up such violent oscillations that the canvas tube was torn
away, and then it became the troublesome task of the aeronauts
to make up their ballast into little parcels, and, as occasion
required, to throw these into space clear of the swinging
parachute below.

Despite all efforts, however, it was soon evident that the
cumbersome nature of the huge parachute would prevent its being
carried up quite so high as the inventor desired.  Mr. Cocking
had stipulated for an elevation of 7,000 feet, and, as things
were, only 5,000 feet could be reached, at any rate, before
darkness set in.  This fact was communicated to Mr. Cocking,
who promptly intimated his intention of leaving, only
requesting to know whereabouts he was, to which query Mr.
Spencer replied that they were on a level with Greenwich.  The
brief colloquy that ensued is thus given by Mr. Green:--

"I asked him if he felt quite comfortable, and if the practical
trial bore out his calculation.  Mr. Cocking replied, 'Yes, I
never felt more comfortable or more delighted in my life,'
presently adding, 'Well, now I think I shall leave you.'  I
answered, 'I wish you a very "Good Night!" and a safe descent
if you are determined to make it and not use the tackle' (a
contrivance for enabling him to retreat up into the balloon if
he desired).  Mr. Cocking's only reply was, 'Good-night,
Spencer; Good-night, Green!'  Mr. Cocking then pulled the rope
that was to liberate himself, but too feebly, and a moment
afterwards more violently, and in an instant the balloon shot
upwards with the velocity of a sky rocket.  The effect upon us
at this moment was almost beyond description.  The immense
machine which suspended us between heaven and earth, whilst it
appeared to be forced upwards with terrific violence and
rapidity through unknown and untravelled regions amidst the
howlings of a fearful hurricane, rolled about as though
revelling in a freedom for which it had long struggled, but of
which until that moment it had been kept in utter ignorance. 
It, at length, as if somewhat fatigued by its exertions,
gradually assumed the motions of a snake working its way with
extraordinary speed towards a given object.  During this
frightful operation the gas was rushing in torrents from the
upper and lower valve, but more particularly from the latter,
as the density of the atmosphere through which we were forcing
our progress pressed so heavily on the valve at the top of the
balloon as to admit of but a comparatively small escape by this
aperture.  At this juncture, had it not been for the application
to our mouths of two pipes leading into an air bag, with which
we had furnished ourselves previous to starting, we must within
a minute have been suffocated, and so, but by different means,
have shared the melancholy fate of our friend.  This bag was
formed of silk, sufficiently capacious to contain 100 gallons of
atmospheric air.  Prior to our ascent, the bag was inflated with
the assistance of a pair of bellows with fifty gallons of air,
so allowing for any expansion which might be produced in the
upper regions.  Into the end of this bag were introduced two
flexible tubes, and the moment we felt ourselves to be going up
in the manner just described, Mr. Spencer, as well as myself,
placed either of them in our mouths.  By this simple contrivance
we preserved ourselves from instantaneous suffocation, a result
which must have ensued from the apparently endless volume of gas
with which the car was enveloped.  The gas, notwithstanding all
our precautions, from the violence of its operation on the human
frame, almost immediately deprived us of sight, and we were
both, as far as our visionary powers were concerned, in a state
of total darkness for four or five minutes."

Messrs. Green and Spencer eventually reached earth in safety
near Maidstone, knowing nothing of the fate of their late
companion.  But of this we are sufficiently informed through a
Mr. R. Underwood, who was on horseback near Blackheath and
watching the aeronauts at the moment when the parachute was
separated from the balloon.  He noticed that the former
descended with the utmost rapidity, at the same time swaying
fearfully from side to side, until the basket and its occupant,
actually parting from the parachute, fell together to earth
through several hundred feet and were dashed to pieces.

It would appear that the liberation of the parachute from below
the balloon had been carried out without hitch; indeed, all so
far had worked well, and the wind at the time was but a gentle
breeze.  The misadventure, therefore, must be entirely
attributed to the faulty manner in which the parachute was
constructed.  There could, of course, be only one issue to the
sheer drop from such a height, which became the unfortunate Mr.
Cocking's fate, but the very interesting question will have to
be discussed as to the chances in favour of the aeronaut who,
within his wicker car, while still duly attached to the
balloon, may meet with a precipitate descent.  

We may here fitly mention an early perilous experience of Mr.
Green, due simply to the malice of someone never discovered. 
It appears that while Green's balloon, previous to an ascent,
was on the ground, the cords attaching the car had been partly
severed in such a way as to escape detection.  So that as soon
as the balloon rose the car commenced breaking away, and its
occupants, Mr. Green and Mr. Griffiths, had to clutch at the
ring, to which with difficulty they continued to cling. 
Meanwhile, the car remaining suspended by one cord only, the
balloon was caused to hang awry, with the result that its upper
netting began giving way, allowing the balloon proper gradually
to escape through the bursting meshes, thus threatening the
distracted voyagers with terrible disaster.  The disaster, in
fact, actually came to pass ere the party completed their
descent, "the balloon, rushing through the opening in the
net-work with a tremendous explosion, and the two passengers
clinging to the rest of the gear, falling through a height said
to be near a hundred feet.  Both, though only with much time
and difficulty, recovered from the shock."

In 1840, three years after the tragic adventure connected with
Mr. Cocking's parachute trial, we find Charles Green giving his
views as to the practicability of carrying out a ballooning
enterprise which should far excel all others that had hitherto
been attempted.  This was nothing less than the crossing of the
Atlantic from America to England.  There is no shadow of doubt
that the adventurous aeronaut was wholly in earnest in the
readiness he expressed to embark on the undertaking should
adequate funds be forthcoming; and he discusses the
possibilities with singular clearness and candour.  He
maintains that the actual difficulties resolve themselves into
two only:  first, the maintenance of the balloon in the sky for
the requisite period of time; and, secondly, the adequate
control of its direction in space.  With respect to the first
difficulty, he points out the fact to which we have already
referred, namely, that it is impossible to avoid the
fluctuations of level in a balloon's course, "by which it
constantly becomes alternately subjected to escape of gas by
expansion, and consequent loss of ballast, to furnish an
equivalent diminution of weight."  Taking his own balloon of
80,000 cubic feet by way of example, he shows that this, fully
inflated on the earth, would lose 8,000 cubic feet of gas by
expansion in ascending only 3,000 feet.  Moreover, the approach
of night or passage through cloud or falling rain would
occasion chilling of the gas or accumulation of moisture on the
silk, in either case necessitating the loss of ballast, the
store of which is always the true measure of the balloon's
life.

To combat the above difficulty Green sanguinely relies on his
favourite device of a trail or guide rope, whose function,
being that of relieving the balloon of a material weight as it
approaches the earth, could, he supposed, be made to act yet
more efficiently when over the sea in the following manner. 
Its length, suspended from the ring, being not less than 2,000
feet, it should have attached at its lower end at certain
intervals a number of small, stout waterproof canvas bags, the
apertures of which should be contrived to admit water, but to
oppose its return.  Between these bags were to be conical
floats, to support any length of the rope that might descend on
the sea.  Now, should the balloon commence descending, it would
simply deposit a certain portion of rope on the water until it
regained equilibrium at no great decrease of altitude, and
would thus continue its course until alteration of conditions
should cause it to recommence rising, when the weight of water
now collected in the bags would play its part in preventing the
balloon from soaring up into space.  With such a contrivance
Green allowed himself to imagine that he could keep a properly
made balloon at practically the same altitude for a period of
three months if required.

The difficulty of maintaining a due course was next discussed,
and somewhat speedily disposed of.  Here Green relied on the
results of his own observation, gathered during 275 ascents,
and stated his conviction that there prevails a uniformity of
upper wind currents that would enable him to carry out his bold
projects successfully.  His contention is best given in his own
words:Ä

"Under whatever circumstances," he says, "I made my ascent,
however contrary the direction of the winds below, I uniformly
found that at a certain elevation, varying occasionally, but
always within 10,000 feet of the earth, a current from the west
or rather from the north of west, invariably travailed, nor do
I recollect a single instance in which a different result
ensued."  Green's complete scheme is now sufficiently evident. 
He was to cross the Atlantic practically by the sole assistance
of upper currents and his guide rope, but on this latter
expedient, should adverse conditions prevail, he yet further
relied, for he conceived that the rope could have attached to
its floating end a water drag, which would hold the balloon in
check until favouring gales returned.

Funds, apparently, were not forthcoming to allow of Mr. Green's
putting his bold method to the test; but we find him still
adhering with so much zeal to his project that, five years
later, he made, though again unsuccessfully, a second proposal
to cross the Atlantic by balloon.  He still continued to make
many and most enterprising ascents, and one of a specially
sensational nature must be briefly mentioned before we pass on
to regard the exploits of other aeronauts.

It was in 1841 on the occasion of a fete at Cremorne House,
when Mr. Green, using his famous Nassau balloon, ascended with
a Mr. Macdonnell.  The wind was blowing with such extreme
violence that Rainham, in Essex, about twenty miles distant,
was reached in little more than a quarter of an hour, and here,
on nearing the earth, the grapnel, finding good hold, gave a
wrench to the balloon that broke the ring and jerked the car
completely upside down, the aeronauts only escaping
precipitation by holding hard to the ropes.  A terrific
steeplechase ensued, in which the travellers were dragged
through stout fencing and other obstacles till the balloon,
fairly emptied of gas, finally came to rest, but not until some
severe injuries had been received.



CHAPTER VIII. JOHN WISE--THE AMERICAN AERONAUT.


By this period the domination of the air was being pursued in a
fresh part of the world.  England and her Continental
neighbours had vied with each in adding to the roll of
conquests, and it could hardly other be supposed that America
would stand by without taking part in the campaign which was
now being revived with so much fresh energy in the skies.

The American champion who stepped forward was Mr. John Wise, of
Lancaster, Pa., whose career, commencing in the year 1835, we
must now for a while follow.  Few attempts at ballooning of any
kind had up to that time been made in all America.  There is a
record that in December, 1783, Messrs. Rittenhouse and Hopkins,
Members of the Philosophical Academy of Philadelphia,
instituted experiments with an aerial machine consisting of a
cage to which forty-seven small balloons were harnessed.  In
this strange craft a carpenter, by name Wilcox, was induced to
ascend, which, it is said, he did successfully, remaining in
the air for ten minutes, when, finding himself near a river, he
sought to come to earth again by opening several of his
balloons.  This brought about an awkward descent, attended,
however, by no more serious accident than a dislocated wrist. 
Mr. Wise, on the other hand, states that Blanchard had won the
distinction of making the first ascent in the New World in 1793
in Philadelphia on which occasion Washington was a spectator;
and a few years afterwards other Frenchmen gave ex hibitions,
which, however, led to no real development of the new art on
this, the further side of the Atlantic.  Thus the endeavours we
are about to describe were those of an independent and, at the
same time, highly, practical experimentalist, and on this
account have a special value of their own.

The records that Wise has left of his investigations begin at
the earliest stage, and possess the charm of an obvious and
somewhat quaint reality.  They commence with certain crude
calculations which would seem to place no limit to the
capabilities of a balloon.  Thus, he points out that one of
"the very moderate size of 400 feet diameter" would convey
13,000 men.  "No wonder, then," he continues, "the citizens of
London became alarmed during the French War, when they mistook
the appearance of a vast flock of birds coming towards the
Metropolis for Napoleon's army apparently coming down upon them
with this new contrivance."

Proceeding to practical measures, Wise's first care was to
procure some proper material of which to build an experimental
balloon of sufficient size to lift and convey himself alone. 
For this he chose ordinary long-cloth, rendered gas-tight by
coats of suitable varnish, the preparation of which became with
him, as, indeed, it remains to this day, a problem of chief
importance and difficulty.  Perhaps it hardly needs pointing
out that the varnish of a balloon must not only be sufficiently
elastic not to crack or scale off with folding or unavoidable
rough usage, but it must also be of a nature to resist the
common tendency of such substances to become adherent or
"tacky."  Wise determined on bird lime thinned with linseed oil
and ordinary driers.  With this preparation he coated his
material several times both before and after the making up, and
having procured a net, of which he speaks with pride, and a
primitive sort of car, of which he bitterly complains, he
thought himself sufficiently equipped to embark on an actual
ascent, which he found a task of much greater practical
difficulty than the mere manufacture of his air ship.  For the
inflation by hydrogen of so small a balloon as his was he made
more than ample provision in procuring no less than fifteen
casks of 130 gallons capacity each.  He also duly secured a
suitable filling ground at the corner of Ninth and Green
Streets, Philadelphia, but he made a miscalculation as to the
time the inflation would demand, and this led to unforeseen
complications, for as yet he knew not the way of a crowd which
comes to witness a balloon ascent.

Having all things in readiness, and prudently waiting for fair
weather, he embarked on his grand experiment on the 2nd of May,
1835, announcing 4 p.m. as the hour of departure.  But by that
time the inflation, having only proceeded for three hours, the
balloon was but half full, and then the populace began to
behave as in such circumstances they always will.  They were
incredulous, and presently grew troublesome.  In vain the
harnessing of the car was proceeded with as though all were
well.  For all was not well, and when the aeronaut stepped into
his car with only fifteen pounds of sand and a few instruments
he must have done so with much misgiving.  Still, he had friends
around who might have been useful had they been less eager to
help.  But these simply crowded round him, giving him no elbow
room, nor opportunity for trying the "lift" of his
all-too-empty globe.  Moreover, some would endeavour to throw
the machine upward, while others as strenuously strove to keep
it down, and at last the former party prevailed, and the
balloon, being fairly cast into the air, grazed a neighbouring
chimney and then plunged into an adjacent plot, not, however,
before the distracted traveller had flung away all his little
stock of sand.  There now was brief opportunity for free
action, and to the first bystander who came running up Wise
gave the task of holding the car in check.  To the next he
handed out his instruments, his coat, and also his boots,
hoping thus to get away; but his chance had not yet come, for
once again the crowd swarmed round him, keeping him prisoner
with good-natured but mistaken interference, and drowning his
voice with excited shouting.  Somehow, by word and gesture, he
gave his persecutors to understand that he wished to speak, and
then he begged them only to give him a chance, whereupon the
crowd fell back, forming a ring, and leaving only one man
holding the car.  It was a moment of suspense, for Wise
calculated that he had only parted with some eighteen pounds
since his first ineffectual start from the filling ground; but
it was enough, and in another moment he was sailing up clear
above the crowd.  So great, as has been already shewn, is often
the effect of parting with the last few pounds of dead weight
in a well-balanced balloon.

Such was the first "send off" of the future great balloonist,
destined to become the pioneer in aeronautics on the far side
of the Atlantic.  The balloon ascended to upwards of a mile,
floating gradually away, but at its highest point it reached a
conflict of currents, causing eddies from which Wise escaped by
a slight decrease of weight, effected by merely cutting away
the wreaths of flowers that were tied about his car.  A further
small substitute for ballast he extemporised in the metal tube
inserted in the neck of his fabric, and this he cast out when
over the breadth of the Delaware, and he describes it as
falling with a rustling sound, and striking the water with a
splash plainly heard at more than a mile in the sky.  After an
hour and a quarter the balloon spontaneously and steadily
settled to earth.

An ascent carried out later in the same summer led to a mishap,
which taught the young aeronaut an all-important lesson.  Using
the same balloon and the same mode of inflation, he got safely
and satisfactorily away from his station in the town of
Lebanon, Pa., and soon found himself over a toll gate in the
open country, where the gate keeper in banter called up to him
for his due.  To this summons Wise, with heedless alacrity,
responded in a manner which might well have cost him dear.  He
threw out a bag of sand to represent his toll, and, though he
estimated this at only six pounds, it so greatly accelerated
his ascent that he shortly found himself at a greater altitude
than he ever after attained.  He passed through mist into upper
sunshine, where he experienced extreme cold and ear-ache, at
which time, seeking the natural escape from such trouble, he
found to his dismay that the valve rope was out of reach.  Thus
he was compelled to allow the balloon to ascend yet higher, at
its own will; and then a terrible event happened.

By mischance the neck of his balloon, which should have been
open, was out of reach and folded inwards in such a way as to
prevent the free escape of the gas, which, at this great
altitude, struggled for egress with a loud humming noise,
giving him apprehensions of an accident which very shortly
occurred, namely, the bursting of the lower part of his balloon
with a loud report.  It happened, however, that no extreme loss
of gas ensued, and he commenced descending with a speed which,
though considerable, was not very excessive.  Still, he was
eager to alight in safety, until a chance occurrence made him a
second time that afternoon guilty of an act of boyish
impetuosity.  A party of volunteers firing a salute in his
honour as he neared the ground, he instantly flung out papers,
ballast, anything he could lay his hands on, and once again
soared to a great height with his damaged balloon.  He could
then do no more, and presently subsiding to earth again, he
acquired the welcome knowledge that even in such precarious
circumstances a balloon may make a long fall with safety to its
freight.

Mr. Wise's zeal and indomitable spirit of enterprise led to
speedy developments of the art which he had espoused; the road
to success being frequently pointed out by failure or mishap. 
He quickly discarded the linen balloon for one of silk on which
he tried a new varnish composed of linseed oil and
india-rubber, and, dressing several gores with this, he rolled
them up and left them through a night in a drying loft, with
the result that the next day they were disintegrated and on the
point of bursting into flame by spontaneous combustion.  Fresh
silk and other varnish were then tried, but with indifferent
success.  Next he endeavoured to dispense with sewing, and
united the gores of yet another balloon by the mere
adhesiveness of the varnish and application of a hot iron. 
This led to a gaping seam developing at the moment of an
ascent, and then there followed a hasty and hazardous descent
on a house-top and an exciting rescue by a gentleman who
appeared opportunely at a third storey window.  Further,
another balloon had been destroyed, and Wise badly burned, at a
descent, owing to a naked light having been brought near the
escaping gas.  It is then without wonder that we find him after
this temporarily bankrupt, and resorting to his skill in
instrument-making to recover his fortunes.  Only, however, for
a few months, after which he is before the public once more as
a professional aeronaut.  He now adopts coal gas for inflation,
and incidents of an impressive nature crowd into his career,
forcing important facts upon him.  The special characteristics
of his own country present peculiar difficulties; broad rivers
and vast forests become serious obstacles.  He is caught in the
embrace of a whirlwind; he narrowly escapes falling into a
forest fire; he is precipitated, but harmlessly, into a pine
wood.  Among other experiments, he makes a small copy of Mr.
Cocking's parachute, and drops it to earth with a cat as
passenger, proving thereby that that unfortunate gentleman's
principle was really less in fault than the actual slenderness
of the material used in his machine.

We now approach one of Wise's boldest, and at the same time
most valuable, experiments.  It was the summer of 1839, and
once again the old trouble of spontaneous combustion had
destroyed a silk balloon which was to have ascended at Easton,
Pa.  Undeterred, however, Wise resolutely advertised a fresh
attempt, and, with only a clear month before the engagement,
determined on hastily rigging up a cambric muslin balloon,
soaking it in linseed oil and essaying the best exhibition that
this improvised experiment could afford.  It was intended to
become a memorable one, inasmuch as, should he meet with no
hindrance, his determination was nothing less than that of
bursting this balloon at a great height, having firmly
convinced himself that the machine in these circumstances would
form itself into a natural parachute, and bring him to earth
with every chance in favour of safety.  In his own words,
"Scientific calculations were on his side with a certainty as
great and principles as comprehensive as that a
pocket-handkerchief will not fall as rapidly to the ground when
thrown out of a third storey window as will a brick."

His balloon was specially contrived for the experiment in hand,
having cords sewn to the upper parts of its seams, and then led
down through the neck, where they were secured within reach,
their office being that of rending the whole head of the
balloon should this be desired.  On this occasion a cat and a
dog were taken up, one of these being let fall from a height of
2,000 feet in a Cocking's parachute, and landing in safety, the
other being similarly dismissed at an altitude of 4,000 feet in
an oiled silk balloon made in the form of a collapsed balloon,
which, after falling a little distance, expanded sufficiently
to allow of its descending with a safe though somewhat
vibratory motion.  Its behaviour, at any rate, fully determined
Wise on carrying out his own experiment.

Being constructed entirely for the main object in view, the
balloon had no true opening in the neck beyond an orifice of
about an inch, and by the time a height of 13,000 feet had been
reached the gas was streaming violently through this small
hole, the entire globe being expanded nearly to bursting point,
and the cords designed for rending the balloon very tense.  At
this critical period Wise owns to having experienced
considerable nervous excitement, and observing far down a
thunderstorm in progress he began to waver in his mind, and
inclined towards relieving the balloon of its strain, and so
abandoning his experiment, at least for the present.  He
remembers pulling out his watch to make a note of the hour,
and, while thus occupied, the straining cords, growing tenser
every moment, suddenly took charge of the experiment and burst
the balloon of their own accord.  The gas now rushed from the
huge rent above tumultuously and in some ten seconds had
entirely escaped, causing the balloon to descend rapidly, until
the lower part of the muslin, doubling in upwards, formed a
species of parachute after the manner intended.  The balloon
now came down with zig-zag descent, and finally the car,
striking the earth obliquely, tossed its occupant out into a
field unharmed.  Shortly after this Wise experimented with
further success with an exploded balloon.

It is not a little remarkable that this pioneer of aeronautics
in American--a contemporary of Charles Green in England, but
working and investigating single-handed on perfectly
independent lines--should have arrived at the same conclusions
as did Green himself as to the possibility, which, in his
opinion, amounted to a certainty, of being able to cross the
Atlantic by balloon if only adequate funds were forth-coming. 
So intent was he on his bold scheme that, in the summer of
1843, he handed to the Lancaster Intelligencer a proclamation,
which he desired might be conveyed to all publishers of
newspapers on the globe.  It contained, among other clauses,
the following:--

"Having from a long experience in aeronautics been convinced
that a constant and regular current of air is blowing at all
times from west to east, with a velocity of from twenty to
forty and even sixty miles per hour, according to its height
from the earth, and having discovered a composition which
renders silk or muslin impervious to hydrogen gas, so that a
balloon may be kept afloat for many weeks, I feel confident
with these advantages that a trip across the Atlantic will not
be attended with as much real danger as by the common mode of
transition.  The balloon is to be 100 feet in diameter, giving
it a net ascending power of 25,000 lbs."  It was further stated
that the crew would consist of three persons, including a sea
navigator, and a scientific landsman.  The specifications for
the transatlantic vessel were also to include a seaworthy boat
in place of the ordinary car.  The sum requisite for this
enterprise was, at the time, not realised; but it should be
mentioned that several years later a sufficient sum of money
was actually subscribed.  In the summer of 1873 the proprietors
of the New York Daily Graphic provided for the construction of
a balloon of no less than 400,000 cubic feet capacity, and
calculated to lift 14,000 lbs.  It was, however, made of bad
material; and, becoming torn in inflation, Wise condemned and
declined to use it.  A few months later, when it had been
repaired, one Donaldson and two other adventurers, attempting a
voyage with this ill-formed monster, ascended from New York,
and were fortunate in coming down safely, though not without
peril, somewhere in Connecticut.

Failing in his grand endeavour, Wise continued to follow the
career of a professional aeronaut for some years longer, of
which he has left a full record, terminating with the spring of
1848.  His ascents were always marked by carefulness of detail,
and a coolness and courage in trying circumstances that secured
him uniform success and universal regard.  He was, moreover,
always a close and intelligent observer, and many of his
memoranda are of scientific value.

His description of an encounter with a storm-cloud in the June
of 1843 has an interest of its own, and may not be considered
overdrawn.  It was an ascent from Carlisle, Pa., to celebrate
the anniversary of Bunker's Hill, and Wise was anxious to
gratify the large concourse of people assembled, and thus was
tempted, soon after leaving the ground, to dive up into a huge
black cloud of peculiarly forbidding aspect.  This cloud
appeared to remain stationary while he swept beneath it, and,
having reached its central position, he observed that its under
surface was concave towards the earth, and at that moment he
became swept upwards in a vortex that set his balloon spinning
and swinging violently, while he himself was afflicted with
violent nausea and a feeling of suffocation.  The cold
experienced now became intense, and the cordage became glazed
with ice, yet this had no effect in checking the upward
whirling of the balloon.  Sunshine was beyond the upper limits
of the cloud; but this was no sooner reached than the balloon,
escaping from the uprush, plunged down several hundred feet,
only to be whirled up again, and this reciprocal motion was
repeated eight or ten times during an interval of twenty
minutes, in all of which time no expenditure of gas or
discharge of ballast enabled the aeronaut to regain any control
over his vessel.

Statements concerning a thunderstorm witnessed at short range
by Wise will compare with other accounts.  The thunder
"rattled" without any reverberations, and when the storm was
passing, and some dense clouds moving in the upper currents,
the "surface of the lower stratum swelled up suddenly like a
boiling cauldron, which was immediately followed by the most
brilliant ebullition of sparkling coruscations."  Green, in his
stormy ascent from Newbury, England, witnessed a thunderstorm
below him, as will be remembered, while an upper cloud stratum
lay at his own level.  It was then that Green observed that "at
every discharge of thunder all the detached pillars of clouds
within the distance of a mile around became attracted."

The author will have occasion, in due place, to give personal
experiences of an encounter with a thunderstorm which will
compare with the foregoing description.



CHAPTER IX. EARLY METHODS AND IDEAS.


Before proceeding to introduce the chief actors and their
achievements in the period next before us, it will be
instructive to glance at some of the principal ideas and
methods in favour with aeronauts up to the date now reached. 
It will be seen that Wise in America, contrary to the practice
of Green in our own country, had a strong attachment to the
antique mode of inflation with hydrogen prepared by the
vitriolic process; and his balloons were specially made and
varnished for the use of this gas.  The advantage which he thus
bought at the expense of much trouble and the providing of
cumbersome equipment was obvious enough, and may be well
expressed by a formula which holds good to-day, namely, that
whereas 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen is capable of lifting 7
lbs., the same quantity of coal gas of ordinary quality will
raise but 35 lbs.  The lighter gas came into all Wise's
calculations for bolder schemes.  Thus, when he discusses the
possibility of using a metal balloon, his figures work out as
follows:  If a balloon of 200 feet diameter were constructed
out of copper, weighing one pound to the square foot; if,
moreover, some six tons were allowed for the weight of car and
fastenings, an available lifting power would remain capable of
raising 45 tons to an altitude of two miles.  This calculation
may appear somewhat startling, yet it is not only substantially
correct, but Wise entertained no doubt as to the practicability
of such a machine.  For its inflation he suggests inserting a
muslin balloon filled with air within the copper globe, and
then passing hydrogen gas between the muslin and copper
surfaces, which would exclude the inner balloon as the copper
one filled up.

His method of preparing hydrogen was practically that still
adopted in the field, and seems in his hands to have been
seldom attended with difficulty.  With eight common 130-gallon
rum puncheons he could reckon on evolving 5,000 cubic feet of
gas in an hour, using his elements in the following
proportions:  water, 560 lbs.; sulphuric acid (sp. g. 1.85),
144 lbs.; iron turnings, 125 lbs.  The gas, as given off, was
cooled and purified by being passed through a head of water
kept cool and containing lime in solution.  Contrasted with
this, we find it estimated, according to the practice of this
time, that a ton of good bituminous coal should yield 10,000
cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen fit for lighting purposes,
and a further quantity which, though useless as an illuminant,
is still of excellent quality for the aeronaut.

It would even seem from a statement of Mr. Monck Mason that the
value of coke in his day largely compensated for the cost of
producing coal gas, so that in a large number of Green's
ascents no charge whatever was made for gas by the companies
that supplied him.

Some, at least, of the methods formerly recommended for the
management of free balloons must in these days be modified. 
Green, as we have seen, was in favour of a trail rope of
inordinate length, which he recommended both as an aid to
steering and for a saving of ballast.  In special
circumstances, and more particularly over the sea, this may be
reckoned a serviceable adjunct, but over land its use, in this
country at least, would be open to serious objection.  The
writer has seen the consternation, not to say havoc, that a
trail rope may occasion when crossing a town, or even private
grounds, and the actual damage done to a garden of hops, or to
telegraph or telephone wires, may be very serious indeed. 
Moreover, the statement made by some early practitioners that a
trail rope will not catch so as to hold fast in a wood or the
like, is not to be relied on, for an instance could be
mentioned coming under the writer's knowledge where such a rope
was the source of so much trouble in a high wind that it had to
be cut away.

The trouble arose in this way.  The rope dragged harmlessly
enough along the open ground.  It would, likewise, negotiate
exceedingly well a single tree or a whole plantation, catching
and releasing itself with only such moderate tugs at the car as
were not disturbing; but, presently, its end, which had been
caught and again released by one tree, swung free in air
through a considerable gap to another tree, where, striking a
horizontal bough, it coiled itself several times around, and
thus held the balloon fast, which now, with the strength of the
wind, was borne to the earth again and again, rebounding high
in air after each impact, until freedom was gained only by the
sacrifice of a portion of the rope.

Wise recommends a pendant line of 600 or 800 feet, capable of
bearing a strain of 100 lbs., and with  characteristic
ingenuity suggests a special use which can be made of it,
namely, that of having light ribbons tied on at every hundred
feet, by means of which the drifts of lower currents may be
detected.  In this suggestion there is, indeed, a great deal of
sound sense; for there is, as will be shown hereafter, very
much value to be attached to a knowledge of those air rivers
that are flowing, often wholly unsuspected, at various heights. 
Small parachutes, crumpled paper, and other such-like bodies as
are commonly thrown out and relied on to declare the lower
drifts, are not wholly trustworthy, for this reason--that
air-streams are often very slender, mere filaments, as they are
sometimes called, and these, though setting in some definite
direction, and capable of entrapping and wafting away some
small body which may come within their influence, may not
affect the travel of so big an object as a balloon, which can
only partake of some more general air movement.

Wise, by his expedient of tying ribbons at different points to
his trail rope, would obtain much more correct and constant
information respecting those general streams through which the
pendant rope was moving.  A similar expedient adopted by the
same ingenious aeronaut is worthy of imitation, namely, that of
tying ribbons on to a rod projecting laterally from the car. 
These form a handy and constant telltale as to the flight of
the balloon, for should they be fluttering upwards the sky
sailor at once knows that his craft is descending, and that he
must act accordingly.

The material, pure silk, which was universally adopted up to
and after the period we are now regarding, is not on every
account to be reckoned the most desirable.  In the first place,
its cost alone is prohibitive, and next, although lighter than
any kind of linen, strength for strength, it requires a greater
weight of varnish, which, moreover, it does not take so kindly
as does fabric made of vegetable tissue.  Further, paradoxical
as it may appear,its great strength is not entirely an
advantage.  There are occasions which must come into the
experience of every zealous aeronaut when his balloon has
descended in a rough wind, and in awkward country.  This may,
indeed, happen even when the ascent has been made in calm. 
Squalls of wind may spring up at short notice, or after
traversing only two or three counties a strong gale may be
found on the earth, though such was absent in the starting
ground.  This is more particularly the case when the landing
chances to be on high ground in the neighbourhood of the sea. 
In these circumstances, the careful balloonist, who will
generally be forewarned by the ruffle on any water he may pass,
or by the drift of smoke, the tossing of trees, or by their
very rustling or "singing" wafted upwards to him, will, if
possible, seek for his landing place the lee of a wood or some
other sheltered spot.  But, even with all his care, he will
sometimes find himself, on reaching earth, being dragged
violently across country on a mad course which the anchor
cannot check.  Now, the country through which he is making an
unwilling steeplechase may be difficult, or even dangerous. 
Rivers, railway cuttings, or other undesirable obstacles may
lie ahead, or, worse yet, such a death trap as in such
circumstances almost any part of Derbyshire affords, with its
stone walls, its precipitous cliffs, and deep rocky dells.  To
be dragged at the speed of an express train through territory
of this description will presently mean damage to something,
perhaps to telegraph poles, to roofs, or crops, and if not,
then to the balloon itself.  Something appertaining to it must
be victimised, and it is in all ways best that this should be
the fabric of the balloon itself.  If made of some form, or at
least some proportion of linen, this will probably rend ere
long, and, allowing the gas to escape, will soon bring itself
to rest.  On the other hand, if the balloon proper is a silk
one, with sound net and in good condition, it is probable that
something else will give way first, and that something may
prove to be the hapless passenger or passengers.

And here be it laid down as one first and all-important
principle, that in any such awkward predicament as that just
described, if there be more than one passenger aboard, let none
attempt to get out.  In the first place, he may very probably
break a limb in so doing, inasmuch as the tangle of the ropes
will not allow of his getting cut readily; or, when actually on
the ground, he may be caught and impaled by the anchor charging
and leaping behind.  But, worse than all, he may, in any case,
jeopardise the lives of his companions, who stand in need of
all the available weight and help that the car contains up to
the moment Of coming to final rest.

We have already touched on the early notions as to the means of
steering a balloon.  Oars had been tested without satisfactory
result, and the conception of a rotary screw found favour among
theorists at this time, the principle being actually tried with
success in working models, which, by mechanical means, could be
made to flit about in the still air of the lecture room; but
the only feasible method advocated was that already alluded to,
which depended on the undesirable action of a trail rope
dragging over the ground or through water.  The idea was, of
course, perfectly practical, and was simply analogous to the
method adopted by sailors, who, when floating with the stream
but without wind, are desirous of gaining "steerage way." 
While simply drifting with the flood, they are unable to guide
their vessel in any way, and this, in practice, is commonly
effected by simply propelling the vessel faster than the
stream, in which case the rudder at once becomes available. 
But the same result is equally well obtained by slowing the
vessel, and this is easily accomplished by a cable, with a
small anchor or other weight attached, dragging below the
vessel.  This cable is essentially the same as the guide-rope
of the older aeronauts.

It is when we come to consider the impressions and sensations
described by sky voyagers of bygone times that we find them
curiously at variance with our own.  As an instance, we may
state that the earth, as seen from a highflying balloon, used
to be almost always described as appearing concave, or like a
huge basin, and ingenious attempts were made to prove
mathematically that this must be so.  The laws of refraction
are brought in to prove the fact; or, again, the case is stated
thus:  Supposing the extreme horizon to be seen when the
balloon is little more than a mile high, the range of view on
all sides will then be, roughly, some eighty miles.  If, then,
a line were drawn from the aerial observer to this remote
distance, that line would be almost horizontal; so nearly so
that he cannot persuade himself that his horizon is otherwise
than still on a level with his eye; yet the earth below him
lies, as it seems, at the bottom of a huge gulf.  Thus the
whole visible earth appears as a vast bowl or basin.  This is
extremely ingenious reasoning, and not to be disregarded; but
the fact remains that in the experience of the writer and of
many others whom he has consulted, there is no such optical
illusion as I have just discussed, and to their vision it is
impossible to regard the earth as anything but uniformly flat.

Another impression invariably insisted on by early balloonists
is that the earth, on quitting it, appears to drop away into an
abyss, leaving the voyagers motionless, and this illusion must,
indeed, be probably universal.  It is the same illusion as the
apparent gliding backwards of objects to a traveller in a
railway carriage; only in this latter case the rattling and
shaking of the carriage helps the mind to grasp the real fact
that the motion belongs to the train itself; whereas it is
otherwise with a balloon, whose motion is so perfectly smooth
as to be quite imperceptible.

Old ideas, formed upon insufficient observations, even if
erroneous, were slow to die.  Thus it used to be stated that an
upper cloud floor adapted itself to the contour of the land
over which it rested, giving what Mr. Monck Mason has called a
"phrenological estimate" of the character of the earth below;
the clouds, "even when under the influence of rapid motion,
seeming to accommodate themselves to all variations of form in
the surface of the subjacent soil, rising with its prominences
and sinking with its depressions."  Probably few aeronauts of
the present time will accept the statement.

It used commonly to be asserted, and is so often to this day,
that a feeling as of sea-sickness is experienced in balloon
travel, and the notion has undoubtedly arisen from the
circumstances attending an ascent in a captive balloon.  It
were well, now that ballooning bids fair to become popular, to
disabuse the public mind of such a wholly false idea.  The
truth is that a balloon let up with a lengthy rope and held
captive will, with a fitful breeze, pitch and sway in a manner
which may induce all the unpleasant feelings attending a rough
passage at sea.  It may do worse, and even be borne to earth
with a puff of wind which may come unexpectedly, and
considerably unsettle the nerves of any holiday passenger.  I
could tell of a "captive" that had been behaving itself
creditably on a not very settled day suddenly swooping over a
roadway and down into public gardens, where it lay
incontinently along the ground, and then, before the astonished
passengers could attempt to alight, it was seized with another
mood, and, mounting once again majestically skyward, submitted
to be hauled down with all becoming grace and ease.  It is
owing to their vagaries and want of manageability that, as will
be shown, "captives" are of uncertain use in war.  On the other
hand, a free balloon is exempt from such disadvantages, and at
moderate heights not the smallest feeling of nausea is ever
experienced.  The only unpleasant sensation, and that not of
any gravity, ever complained of, is a peculiar tension in the
ears experienced in a rapid ascent, or more often, perhaps, in
a descent.  The cause, which is trivial and easily removed,
should be properly understood, and cannot be given in clearer
language than that used by Professor Tyndall:--"Behind the
tympanic membrane exists a cavity--the drum of the ear--in part
crossed by a series of bones, and in part occupied by air. 
This cavity communicates with the mouth by means of a duct
called the Eustachian tube.  This tube is generally closed, the
air space behind the tympanic membrane being thus cut off from
the external air.  If, under these circumstances, the external
air becomes denser, it will press the tympanic membrane
inwards; if, on the other hand, the air on the other side
becomes rarer, while the Eustachian tube becomes closed, the
membrane will be pressed outwards.  Pain is felt in both cases,
and partial deafness is experienced.... By the act of swallowing
the Eustachian tube is opened, and thus equilibrium is
established between the external and internal pressure."

Founded on physical facts more or less correct in themselves,
come a number of tales of olden days, which are at least more
marvellous than credible, the following serving as an example. 
The scientific truth underlying the story is the well-known
expedient of placing a shrivelled apple under the receiver of
an air pump.  As the air becomes rarefied the apple swells,
smooths itself out, and presently becomes round and rosy as it
was in the summer time.  It is recorded that on one occasion a
man of mature years made an ascent, accompanied by his son,
and, after reaching some height, the youth remarked on how
young his father was looking.  They still continued to ascend,
and the same remark was repeated more than once.  And at last,
having now reached attenuated regions, the son cried in
astonishment, "Why, dad, you ought to be at school!"  The cause
of this remark was that in the rarefied air all the wrinkles
had come out of the old man's face, and his cheeks were as
chubby as his son's.

This discussion of old ideas should not be closed without
mention of a plausible plea for the balloon made by Wise and
others on the score of its value to health.  Lofty ascents have
proved a strain on even robust constitutions--the heart may
begin to suffer, or ills akin to mountain sickness may
intervene before a height equal to that of our loftiest
mountain is reached.  But many have spoken of an exhilaration
of spirits not inferior to that of the mountaineer, which is
experienced, and without fatigue, in sky voyages reasonably
indulged in--of a light-heartedness, a glow of health, a
sharpened appetite, and the keen enjoyment of mere existence. 
Nay, it has been seriously affirmed that "more good may be got
by the invalid in an hour or two while two miles up on a fine
summer's day than is to be gained in an entire voyage from New
York to Madeira by sea."



CHAPTER X. THE COMMENCEMENT OF A NEW ERA.


Resuming the roll of progressive aeronauts in England whose
labours were devoted to the practical conquest of the air, and
whose methods and mechanical achievements mark the road of
advance by which the successes of to-day have been obtained,
there stand out prominently two individuals, of whom one has
already received mention in these pages.

The period of a single life is seldom sufficient to allow within
its span the full development of any new departure in art or
science, and it cannot, therefore, be wondered at if Charles
Green, though reviving and re-modelling the art of ballooning in
our own country, even after an exceptionally long and successful
career, left that pursuit to which he had given new birth
virtually still in its infancy.

The year following that in which Green conducted the famous
Nassau voyage we find him experimenting in the same balloon
with his chosen friend and colleague, Edward Spencer,
solicitor, of Barnsbury, who, only nine years later, compiles
memoranda of thirty-four  ascents, made under every variety of
circumstance,  many being of a highly enterprising nature.  We
find him writing enthusiastically of the raptures he
experienced when sailing over London in night hours, of lofty
ascents and extremely low temperatures, of speeding
twenty-eight miles in twenty minutes, of grapnel ropes
breaking, and of a cross-country race of four miles through
woods and hedges.  Such was Mr. Spencer the elder, and if
further evidence were needed of his practical acquaintance
with, as well as personal devotion to, his adopted profession
of aeronautics, we have it in the store of working calculations
and other minutiae of the craft, most carefully compiled in
manuscript by his own hand; these memoranda being to this day
constantly consulted by his grandsons, the present eminent
aeronauts, Messrs. Spencer Brothers, as supplying a manual of
reliable data for the execution of much of the most important
parts of their work.

In the terrific ordeal and risk entailed by the daring and
fatal parachute descent of Cocking, Green required an assistant
of exceptional nerve and reliability, and, as has been
recorded, his choice at once fell on Edward Spencer.  In this
choice it has already been shown that he was well justified,
and in the trying circumstances that ensued Green frankly owns
that it was his competent companion who was the first to
recover himself.  A few years later, when a distinguished
company, among whom were Albert Smith and Shirley Brooks, made
a memorable ascent from Cremorne, Edward Spencer is one of the
select party.

Some account of this voyage should be given, and it need not be
said that no more graphic account is to be found than that
given by the facile pen of Albert Smith himself.  His personal
narrative also forms an instructive contrast to another which
he had occasion to give to the world shortly afterwards, and
which shall be duly noticed.  The enthusiastic writer first
describes, with apparent pride, the company that ascended with
him.  Besides Mr. Shirley Brooks, there were Messrs. Davidson,
of the Garrick Club; Mr. John Lee, well known in theatrical
circles; Mr. P.  Thompson, of Guy's Hospital, and others--ten
in all, including Charles Green as skipper, and Edward Spencer,
who, sitting in the rigging, was entrusted with the
all-important management of the valve rope.

"The first sensation experienced," Albert Smith continues, "was
not that we were rising, but that the balloon remained fixed,
whilst all the world below was rapidly falling away; while the
cheers with which they greeted our departure grew fainter, and
the cheerers themselves began to look like the inmates of many
sixpenny Noah's Arks grouped upon a billiard table.... Our
hats would have held millions.... And most strange is the roar
of the city as it comes surging into the welkin as though the
whole metropolis cheered you with one voice.... Yet none
beyond the ordinary passengers are to be seen.  The noise is as
inexplicable as the murmur in the air at hot summer noontide."

The significance of this last remark will be insisted on when
the writer has to tell his own experiences aloft over London,
as also a note to the effect that there were seen "large
enclosed fields and gardens and pleasure grounds where none
were supposed to exist by ordinary passengers."  Another
interesting note, having reference to a once familiar feature
on the river, now disappearing, related to the paddle boats of
those days, the steamers making a very beautiful effect,
"leaving two long wings of foam behind them similar to the
train of a table rocket."  Highly suggestive, too, of the
experiences of railway travellers in the year 1847 is the
account of the alighting, which, by the way, was obviously of
no very rude nature.  "Every time," says the writer, "the
grapnel catches in the ground the balloon is pulled up suddenly
with a shock that would soon send anybody from his seat, a jerk
like that which occurs when fresh carriages are brought up to a
railway train."  But the concluding paragraph in this rosy
narrative affords another and a very notable contrast to the
story which that same writer had occasion to put on record
before that same year had passed.

"We counsel everybody to go up in a balloon... In spite of the
apparent frightful fragility of cane and network nothing can in
reality be more secure... The stories of pressure on the ears,
intense cold, and the danger of coming down are all
fictions.... Indeed, we almost wanted a few perils to give a
little excitement to the trip, and have some notion, if
possible, of going up the next time at midnight with fireworks
in a thunderstorm, throwing away all the ballast, fastening
down the valve, and seeing where the wind will send us."

The fireworks, the thunderstorm, and the throwing away of
ballast, all came off on the 15th of the following October,
when Albert Smith made his second ascent, this time from
Vauxhall Gardens, under the guidance of Mr. Gypson, and
accompanied by two fellow-passengers.  Fireworks, which were to
be displayed when aloft, were suspended on a framework forty
feet below the car.  Lightning was also playing around as they
cast off.  The description which Albert Smith gives of London
by night as seen from an estimated elevation of 4,000 feet,
should be compared with other descriptions that will be given
in these pages:--

"In the obscurity all traces of houses and enclosures are lost
sight of.  I can compare it to nothing else than floating over
dark blue and boundless sea spangled with hundreds of thousands
of stars. These stars were the lamps.  We could see them
stretching over the river at the bridges, edging its banks,
forming squares and long parallel lines of light in the streets
and solitary parks.  Further and further apart until they were
altogether lost in the suburbs.  The effect was bewildering."

At 7,000 feet, one of the passengers, sitting in the ring,
remarked that the balloon was getting very tense, and the order
was given to "ease her" by opening the top valve.  The valve
line was accordingly pulled, "and immediately afterwards we
heard a noise similar to the escape of steam in a locomotive,
and the lower part of the balloon collapsed rapidly, and
appeared to fly up into the upper portion.  At the same instant
the balloon began to fall with appalling velocity, the immense
mass of loose silk surging and rustling frightfully over our
heads.... retreating up away from us more and more into the
head of the balloon.  The suggestion was made to throw
everything over that might lighten the balloon.  I had two
sandbags in my lap, which were cast away directly.... There
were several large bags of ballast, and some bottles of wine,
and these were instantly thrown away, but no effect was
perceptible.  The wind still appeared to be rushing up past us
at a fearful rate, and, to add to the horror, we came among the
still expiring discharge of the fireworks which floated in the
air, so that little bits of exploded cases and touch-paper,
still incandescent, attached themselves to the cordage of the
balloon and were blown into sparks.... I presume we must have
been upwards of a mile from the earth.... How long we were
descending I have not the slightest idea, but two minutes must
have been the outside.... We now saw the houses, the roofs of
which appeared advancing to meet us, and the next instant, as
we dashed by their summits, the words, 'Hold hard!' burst
simultaneously from all the party.... We were all directly
thrown out of the car along the ground, and, incomprehensible
as it now appears to me, nobody was seriously hurt."

But "not so incomprehensible, after all," will be the verdict
of all who compare the above narrative with the ascents given
in a foregoing account of how Wise had fared more than once
when his balloon had burst.  For, as will be readily guessed,
the balloon had in this case also burst, owing to the release
of the upper valve being delayed too long, and the balloon had
in the natural way transformed itself into a true parachute. 
Moreover, the fall, which, by Albert Smith's own showing, was
that of about a mile in two minutes, was not more excessive
than one which will presently be recorded of Mr. Glaisher, who
escaped with no material injury beyond a few bruises.

One fact has till now been omitted with regard to the above
sensational voyage, namely, the name of the passenger who,
sitting in the ring, was the first to point out the imminent
danger of the balloon.  This individual was none other than Mr.
Henry Coxwell, the second, indeed, of the two who were
mentioned in the opening paragraph of this chapter as marking
the road of progress which it is the scope of these pages to
trace, and to whom we must now formally introduce our readers.

This justly famous sky pilot, whose practical acquaintance with
ballooning extends over more than forty years, was the son of a
naval officer residing near Chatham, and in his autobiography
he describes enthusiastically how, a lad of nine years old, he
watched through a sea telescope a balloon, piloted by Charles
Green, ascend from Rochester and, crossing the Thames,
disappear in distance over the Essex flats.  He goes on to
describe how the incident started him in those early days on
boyish endeavours to construct fire balloons and paper
parachutes.  Some years later his home, on the death of his
father, being transferred to Eltham, he came within frequent
view of such balloons as, starting from the neighbourhood of
London, will through the summer drift with the prevailing winds
over that part of Kent.  And it was here that, ere long, he
came in at the death of another balloon of which Green was in
charge.

And from this time onwards the schoolboy with the strange hobby
was constantly able to witness the flights and even the
inflations of those ships of the air, which, his family
associations notwithstanding took precedence of all boyish
diversions.

His elder brother, now a naval officer, entirely failed to
divert his aspirations into other channels, and it was when the
boy had completed sixteen summers that an aeronautic enterprise
attracted not only his own, but public attention also.  It was
the building of a mammoth balloon at Vauxhall under the
superintendence of Mr. Green.  The launching of this huge craft
when completed was regarded as so great an occasion that the
young Coxwell, who had by this time obtained a commercial
opening abroad, was allowed, at his earnest entreaty, to stay
till the event had come off, and fifty years after the hardened
sky sailor is found describing with a boyish enthusiasm how
thirty-six policemen were needed round that balloon; how
enormous weights were attached to the cordage, only to be
lifted feet above the ground; while the police were compelled
to pass their staves through the meshes to prevent the cords
cutting their hands.  At this ascent Mr. Hollond was a
passenger, and by the middle of the following November all
Europe was ringing with the great Nassau venture.

Commercial business did not suit the young Coxwell, and at the
age of one-and-twenty we find him trying his hand at the
profession of surgeon-dentist, not, however, with any prospect
of its keeping him from the longing of his soul, which grew
stronger and stronger upon him.  It was not till the summer of
1844 that Mr. Hampton, giving an exhibition from the White
Conduit Gardens, Pentonville, offered the young man, then
twenty-five years old, his first ascent.

In after years Coxwell referred to his first sensations in
characteristic language, contrasting them with the experiences
of the mountaineer.  "In Alpine travels," he says, "the process
is so slow, and contact with the crust of the earth so
palpable, that the traveller is gradually prepared for each
successive phase of view as it presents itself.  But in the
balloon survey, cities, villages, and vast tracts for
observation spring almost magically before the eye, and change
in aspect and size so pleasingly that bewilderment first and
then unbounded admiration is sure to follow."

The ice was now fairly broken, and, not suffering professional
duties to be any hindrance, Coxwell began to make a series of
ascents under the leadership of two rival balloonists, Gale and
Gypson.  One voyage made with the latter he describes as
leading to the most perilous descent in the annals of
aerostation.  This was the occasion, given above, on which
Albert Smith was a passenger, and which that talented writer
describes in his own fashion.  He does not, however, add the
fact, worthy of being chronicled, that exactly a week after the
appalling adventure Gypson and Coxwell, accompanied by a
Captain whose name does not transpire, and loaded with twice
the previous weight of fireworks, made a perfectly successful
night ascent and descent in the same balloon.

It is very shortly after this that we find Coxwell seduced into
undertaking for its owners the actual management of a balloon,
the property of Gale, and now to be known as the "Sylph."  With
this craft he practically began his career as a professional
balloonist, and after a few preliminary ascents made in
England, was told off to carry on engagements in Belgium.

A long series of ascents was now made on the Continent, and in
the troubled state of affairs some stirring scenes were
visited, not without some real adventure.  One occasion
attended with imminent risk occurred at Berlin in 1851. 
Coxwell relates that a Prussian labourer whom he had dismissed
for bad conduct, and who almost too manifestly harboured
revenge, nevertheless begged hard for a re-engagement, which,
as the man was a handy fellow, Coxwell at length assented to. 
He took up three passengers beside himself, and at an elevation
of some 3,000 feet found it necessary to open the valve, when,
on pulling the cord, one of the top shutters broke and remained
open, leaving a free aperture of 26 inches by 12 inches, and
occasioning such a copious discharge of gas that nothing short
of a providential landing could save disaster.  But the
providential landing came, the party falling into the embrace
of a fruit tree in an orchard.  It transpired afterwards that
the labourer had been seen to tamper with the valve, the
connecting lines of which he had partially severed.

Returning to England in 1852 Coxwell, through the accidents
inseparable from his profession, found himself virtually in
possession of the field.  Green, now advanced in years, was
retiring from the public life in which he had won so much fame
and honour.  Gale was dead, killed in an ascent at Bordeaux. 
Only one aspirant contested the place of public aeronaut--one
Goulston, who had been Gale's patron.  Before many months,
however, he too met with a balloonist's death, being dashed
against some stone walls when ascending near Manchester.

It will not be difficult to form an estimate of how entirely
the popularity of the balloon was now reestablished in England,
from the mere fact that before the expiration of the year
Coxwell had been called upon to make thirty-six voyages.  Some
of these were from Glasgow, and here a certain coincidence took
place which is too curious to be omitted.  A descent effected
near Milngavie took place in the same field in which Sadler,
twenty-nine years before, had also descended, and the same man
who caught the rope of Mr. Sadler's balloon performed the same
service once again for a fresh visitor from the skies.

The following autumn Coxwell, in fulfilling one out of many
engagements, found himself in a dilemma which bore resemblance
in a slight degree to a far more serious predicament in which
the writer became involved, and which must be told in due
place.  The preparations for the ascent, which was from the
Mile End Road, had been hurried, and after finally getting away
at a late hour in the evening, it was found that the valve line
had got caught in a fold of the silk, and could not be
operated.  In consequence, the balloon was, of necessity, left
to take its own chance through the night, and, after rising to
a considerable height, it slowly lost buoyancy during the
chilly hours, and, gradually settling, came to earth near
Basingstoke, where the voyager, failing to get help or shelter,
made his bed within his own car, lying in an open field, as
other aeronauts have had to do in like circumstances.

Coxwell tells of a striking phenomenon seen during that voyage. 
"A splendid meteor was below the car, and apparently about 600
feet distant.  It was blue and yellow, moving rapidly in a N.E.
direction, and became extinguished without noise or sparks."



CHAPTER XI. THE BALLOON IN THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE.


At this point we must, for a brief while, drop the history of
the famous aeronaut whose early career we have been briefly
sketching in the last chapter, and turn our attention to a new
feature of English ballooning.  We have, at last, to record
some genuinely scientific ascents, which our country now, all
too tardily, instituted.  It was the British Association that
took the initiative, and the two men they chose for their
purpose were both exceptionally qualified for the task they had
in hand.  The practical balloonist was none other than the
veteran Charles Green, now in his sixty-seventh year, but
destined yet to enjoy nearly twenty years more of life.  The
scientific expert was Mr. John Welsh, well fitted for the
projected work by long training at Kew Observatory.  The
balloon which they used is itself worthy of mention, being the
great Nassau Balloon of olden fame.

Welsh was quick to realise more clearly than any former
experimentalist that on account of the absence of breeze in a
free balloon, as also on account of great solar radiation, the
indications of thermometers would, without special precautions,
be falsified.  He therefore invented a form of aspirating
thermometer, the earliest to be met with, and far in advance of
any that were subsequently used by other scientists.  It
consisted of a polished tube, in which thermometers were
enclosed, and through which a stream of air was forced by
bellows.

The difficulty of obtaining really accurate readings where
thermometers are being quickly transported through varying
temperatures is generally not duly appreciated.  In the case of
instruments carried m a balloon it should be remembered that
the balloon itself conveys, clinging about it, no
inconsiderable quantity of air, brought from other levels,
while the temperature of its own mass will be liable to affect
any thermometer in close neighbourhood.  Moreover, any ordinary
form of thermometer is necessarily sluggish in action, as may
be readily noticed.  If, for example, one be carried from a
warm room to a cold passage, or vice versa it will be seen that
the column moves very deliberately, and quite a long interval
will elapse before it reaches its final position, the cause
being that the entire instrument, with any stand or mounting
that it may have, will have to adapt itself to the change of
temperature before a true record will be obtained.  This
difficulty applies unavoidably to all thermometers in some
degree, and the skill of instrument makers has been taxed to
reduce the errors to a minimum.  It is necessary, in any case,
that a constant stream of surrounding air should play upon the
instrument, and though this is most readily effected when
instruments are carried aloft by kites, yet even thus it is
thought that an interval of some minutes has to elapse before
any form of thermometer will faithfully record any definite
change of temperature.  It is on this account that some
allowance must be made for observations which will, in due
place, be recorded of scientific explorers; the point to be
borne in mind being that, as was mentioned in a former chapter,
such observations will have to be regarded as giving readings
which are somewhat too high in ascents and too low in descents. 
Two forms of thermometers at extremely simple construction, yet
possessed of great sensibility, will be discussed in later
chapters.

The thermometers that Welsh used were undoubtedIy far superior
to any that were devised before his time and it is much to be
regretted that they were allowed to fall into disuse.  Perhaps
the most important stricture on the observations that will have
to be recorded is that the observers were not provided with a
base station, on which account the value of results was
impaired.  It was not realised that it was necessary to make
observations on the ground to compare with those that were
being made at high altitudes.

Welsh made, in all, four ascents in the summer and autumn of
1852 and in his report he is careful to give the highest praise
to his colleague, Green, whose control over his balloon he
describes as "so complete that none who accompanied him can be
otherwise than relieved from all apprehension, and free to
devote attention calmly to the work before him."

The first ascent was made at 3.49 p.m. on August the 17th, under
a south wind and with clouds covering some three-quarters of the
sky.  Welsh's first remark significant, and will be appreciated
by anyone who has attempted observational work in a balloon.  He
states naively that "a short time was lost at first in an
attempt to put the instruments into more convenient order, and
also from the novelty of the situation."  Then he mentions an
observation which, in the experience of the writer, is a
common one.  The lowest clouds, which were about 2,500 feet
high and not near the balloon, were passed without being
noticed; other clouds were passed at different heights; and,
finally, a few star-shaped crystals of snow; but the sun shone
almost constantly.  Little variation occurred in the direction
of travel, which averaged thirty-eight miles an hour, and the
descent took place at 5.20 p.m. at Swavesey, near Cambridge.

The second ascent took place at 4.43 p.m. on August 26th, under
a gentle east wind and a partially obscured sky.  The clouds
were again passed without being perceived.  This was at the
height of 3,000 feet, beyond which was very clear sky of deep
blue.  The air currents up to the limits of 12,000 feet set
from varying directions.  The descent occurred near Chesham at
7.45 p.m.

The third ascent, at 2.35 p.m. on October the 21st was made
into a sky covered with dense cloud masses lying within 3,000
and 3,700 feet.  The sun was then seen shining through cirrus
far up.  The shadow of the balloon was also seen on the cloud,
fringed with a glory, and about this time there was seen
"stretching for a considerable length in a serpentine course,
over the surface of the cloud, a well-defined belt, having the
appearance of a broad road."

Being now at 12,000 feet, Green thought it prudent to
reconnoitre his position, and, finding they were near the sea,
descended at 4.20 p.m. at Rayleigh, in Essex.  Some important
notes on the polarisation of the clouds were made.

The fourth and final voyage was made in a fast wind averaging
fifty knots from the north-east.  Thin scud was met at 1,900
feet, and an upper stratum at 4,500 feet, beyond which was
bright sun.  The main shift of wind took place just as the
upper surface of the first stratum was reached.  In this ascent
Welsh reached his greatest elevation, 22,930 feet, when both
Green and himself experienced considerable difficulty in
respiration and much fatigue.  The sea being now perceived
rapidly approaching, a hasty descent was made, and many of the
instruments were broken.

In summarising his results Welsh states that "the temperature
of the air decreases uniformly with height above the earth's
surface until at a certain elevation, varying on different
days, decrease is arrested, and for the space of 2,000 or 3,000
feet the temperature remains nearly constant, or even
increases, the regular diminution being again resumed and
generally maintained at a rate slightly less rapid than in the
lower part of the atmosphere, and commencing from a higher
temperature than would have existed but for the interruption
noticed."  The analysis of the upper air showed the proportion
of oxygen and nitrogen to vary scarcely more than at different
spots on the earth.

As it is necessary at this point to take leave of the veteran
Green as a practical aeronaut, we may here refer to one or two
noteworthy facts and incidents relating to his eventful career. 
In 1850 M. Poitevin is said to have attracted 140,000 people to
Paris to look at an exhibition of himself ascending in a
balloon seated on horseback, after which Madame Poitevin
ascended from Cremorne Gardens in the same manner, the
exhibition being intended as a representation of "Europa on a
Bull."  This, however, was discountenanced by the authorities
and withdrawn.  The feats were, in reality, merely the
repetitions of one that had been conceived and extremely well
carried out by Green many years before--as long ago, in fact,
as 1828, when he arranged to make an ascent from the Eagle
Tavern, City Road, seated on a pony.  To carry out his
intention, he discarded the ordinary car, replacing it with a
small platform, which was provided with places to receive the
pony's feet; while straps attached to the hoop were passed
under the animal's body, preventing it from lying down or from
making any violent movement.  This the creature seemed in no
way disposed to attempt, and when all had been successfully
carried out and an easy descent effected at Beckenham, the pony
was discovered eating a meal of beans with which it had been
supplied.

Several interesting observations have been recorded by Green on
different occasions, some of which are highly instructive from
a practical or scientific point of view.  On an ascent from
Vauxhall, in which he was accompanied by his friend Spencer and
Mr. Rush, he recorded how, as he constantly and somewhat
rapidly rose, the wind changed its direction from N.W. through
N. to N.E., while he remained over the metropolis, the balloon
all the while rotating on its axis.  This continual swinging or
revolving of the balloon Green considers an accompaniment of
either a rapid ascent or descent, but it may be questioned
whether it is not merely a consequence of changing currents,
or, sometimes, of an initial spin given inadvertently to the
balloon at the moment of its being liberated.  The phenomenon
of marked change which he describes in the upper currents is
highly interesting, and tallies with what the writer has
frequently experienced over London proper.  Such higher
currents may be due to natural environment, and to conditions
necessarily prevailing over so vast and varied a city, and they
may be able to play an all-important part in the dispersal of
London smoke or fog.  This point will be touched on later.  In
this particular voyage Green records that as he was rising at
the moment when his barometer reached 19 inches, the
thermometer he carried registered 46 degrees, while on coming
down, when the barometer again marked 19 inches, the same
thermometer recorded only 22 degrees.  It will not fail to be
recognised that there is doubtless here an example of the
errors alluded to above, inseparable from readings taken in
ascent and descent.

A calculation made by Green in his earlier years has a certain
value.  By the time he had accomplished 200 ascents he was at
pains to compute that he had travelled across country some
6,000 miles, which had been traversed in 240 hours.  From this
it would follow that the mean rate of travel in aerial voyages
will be about twenty-five miles per hour.  Towards the end of
his career we find it stated by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E.,
that "the Messrs. Green, Father and Son, have made between them
some 930 ascents, in none of which have they met with any
material accident or failure."  This is wonderful testimony,
indeed, and we may here add the fact that the father took up
his own father, then at the age of eighty-three, in a balloon
ascent of 1845, without any serious consequences.  But it is
time that some account should be given of a particular occasion
which at least provided the famous aeronaut with an adventure
spiced with no small amount of risk.  It was on the 5th of
July, 1850, that Green ascended, with Rush as his companion,
from Vauxhall, at the somewhat late hour of 7.50 p.m., using,
as always, the great Nassau balloon.  The rate of rise must
have been very considerable, and they presently record an
altitude of no less than 20,000 feet, and a temperature of 12
degrees below freezing.  They were now above the clouds, where
all view of earth was lost, and, not venturing to remain long
in this situation, they commenced a rapid descent, and on
emerging below found themselves sailing down Sea Reach in the
direction of Nore Sands, when they observed a vessel.  Their
chance of making land was, to say the least, uncertain, and
Green, considering that his safety lay in bespeaking the
vessel's assistance, opened the valve and brought the car down
in the water some two miles north of Sheerness, the hour being
8.45, and only fifty-five minutes since the start.  The wind
was blowing stiffly, and, catching the hollow of the
half-inflated balloon, carried the voyagers rapidly down the
river, too fast, indeed, to allow of the vessel's overtaking
them.  This being soon apparent, Green cast out his anchor, and
not without result, for it shortly became entangled in a sunken
wreck, and the balloon was promptly "brought up," though
struggling and tossing in the broken water.  A neighbouring
barge at once put off a boat to the rescue, and other boats were
despatched by H.M. cutter Fly, under Commander Gurling.  Green
and Rush were speedily rescued, but the balloon itself was too
restive and dangerous an object to approach with safety.  At
Green's suggestion, therefore, a volley of musketry was fired
into the silk' after which it became possible to pass a rope
around it and expel the gas.  Green subsequently relates how it
took a fortnight to restore the damage, consisting of sixty-two
bullet rents and nineteen torn gores.

Green's name will always be famous, if only for the fact that
it was he who first adopted the use of coal gas in his calling. 
This, it will be remembered, was in 1821, and it should be
borne in mind that at that time household gas had only recently
been introduced.  In point of fact, it first lighted Pall Mall
in 1805, and it was not used for the general lighting of London
till 1814.

We are not surprised to find that the great aeronaut at one
time turned his attention to the construction of models, and
this with no inconsiderable success.  A model of his was
exhibited in 1840 at the Polytechnic Institution, and is
described in the Times as consisting of a miniature balloon of
three feet diameter, inflated with coal gas.  It was acted on
by fans, which were operated by mechanism placed in the car.  A
series of three experiments was exhibited.  First, the balloon
being weighted so as to remain poised in the still air of the
building, the mechanism was started, and the machine rose
steadily to the ceiling.  The fans were then reversed, when the
model, equally gracefully, descended to the floor.  Lastly, the
balloon, with a weighted trail rope, being once more balanced
in mid-air, the fans were applied laterally, when the machine
would take a horizontal flight, pulling the trail rope after
it, with an attached weight dragging along the floor until the
mechanism had run down, when it again remained stationary.  The
correspondent of the Times continues, "Mr. Green states that by
these simple means a voyage across the Atlantic may be
performed in three or four days, as easily as from Vauxhall
Gardens to Nassau."

We can hardly attribute this statement seriously to one who
knew as well as did Green how fickle are the winds, and how
utterly different are the conditions between the still air of a
room and those of the open sky.  His insight into the
difficulties of the problem cannot have been less than that of
his successor, Coxwell, who, as the result of his own equally
wide experience, states positively, "I could never imagine a
motive power of sufficient force to direct and guide a balloon,
much less to enable a man or a machine to fly."  Even when
modern invention had produced a motive power undreamed of in
the days we are now considering, Coxwell declares his
conviction that inherent difficulties would not be overcome
"unless the air should invariably remain in a calm state."

It would be tedious and scarcely instructive to inquire into
the various forms of flying machines that were elaborated at
this period; but one that was designed in America by Mr.
Henson, and with which it was seriously contemplated to attempt
to cross the Atlantic, may be briefly described.  In theory it
was supposed to be capable of being sustained in the air by
virtue of the speed mechanically imparted to it, and of the
angle at which its advancing under surface would meet the air. 
The inventor claimed to have produced a steam engine of extreme
lightness as well as efficiency, and for the rest his machine
consisted of a huge aero-plane propelled by fans with oblique
vanes, while a tail somewhat resembling that of a bird was
added, as also a rudder, the functions of which were to direct
the craft vertically and horizontally respectively.  Be it here
recorded that the machine did not cross the Atlantic.

One word as to the instruments used up to this time for
determining altitudes.  These were, in general, ordinary
mercurial barometers, protected in various ways.  Green encased
his instrument in a simple metal tube, which admitted of the
column of mercury being easily read.  This instrument, which is
generally to be seen held in his hand in Green's old portraits,
might be mistaken for a mariner's telescope.  It is now in the
possession of the family of Spencers, the grandchildren of his
old aeronautical friend and colleague, and it is stated that
with all his care the glass was not infrequently broken in a
descent.

Wise, with characteristic ingenuity, devised a rough-and-ready
height instrument, which he claims to have answered well.  It
consisted simply of a common porter bottle, to the neck of
which was joined a bladder of the same capacity.  The bottle
being filled with air of the density of that on the ground, and
the bladder tied on in a collapsed state, the expansion of the
air in the bottle would gradually fill the bladder as it rose
into the rarer regions of the atmosphere.  Experience would
then be trusted to enable the aeronaut to judge his height from
the amount of inflation noticeable in the bladder.



CHAPTER XII. HENRY COXWELL AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.


Mention should be made in these pages of a night sail of a
hundred miles, boldly carried out in 1849 by M. Arban, which
took the voyager from Marseilles to Turin fairly over the Alps. 
The main summit was reached at 11 p.m., when the "snow,
cascades, and rivers were all sparkling under the moon, and the
ravines and rocks produced masses of darkness which served as
shadows to the gigantic picture."  Arban was at one time on a
level with the highest point of Mont Blanc, the top of which,
standing out well above the clouds, resembled "an immense block
of crystal sparkling with a thousand fires."

In London, in the year of the Great Exhibition, and while the
building was still standing in Hyde  Park, there occurred a
balloon incident small in itself, but sufficient to cause much
sensation at the crowded spot where it took place.  The ascent
was made from  the Hippodrome by Mr. and Mrs. Graham in very
boisterous weather, and, on being liberated, the balloon seems
to have fouled a mast, suffering a considerable rent.  After
this the aeronauts succeeded in clearing the trees in
Kensington Gardens, and in descending fairly in the Park, but,
still at the mercy of the winds, they were carried on to the
roof of a house in Arlington Street, and thence on to another
in Park Place, where, becoming lodged against a stack of
chimneys, they were eventually rescued by the police without
any material damage having been done.

But this same summer saw the return to England of Henry
Coxwell, and for some years the story of the conquest of the
air is best told by following his stirring career, and his own
comments on aeronautical events of this date.  We find him
shortly setting about carrying out some reconnoitring and
signalling experiments, designed to be of use in time of war. 
This was an old idea of his, and one which had, of course, been
long entertained by others, having, indeed, been put to some
practical test in time of warfare.  It will be well to make
note of what attention the matter had already received, and of
what progress had been made both in theory and practice.

We have already made some mention in Chapter IV. of the use
which the French had made of balloons in their military
operations at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of
nineteenth the century.  It was, indeed, within the first ten
years after the first invention of the balloon that, under the
superintendence of the savants of the French Academy, a
practical school of aeronautics was established at Meudon.  The
names of Guyton, De Morveau (a distinguished French chemist),
and Colonel Coutelle are chiefly associated with the movement,
and under them some fifty students received necessary training. 
The practising balloon had a capacity of 17,000 cubic feet, and
was inflated with pure hydrogen, made by what was then a new
process as applied to ballooning, and which will be described
in a future chapter.  It appears that the balloon was kept
always full, so that any opportunity of calm weather would be
taken advantage of for practice.  And it is further stated that
a balloon was constructed so sound and impervious that after
the lapse of two months it was still capable, without being
replenished, of raising into the air two men, with necessary
ballast and equipment.  The practical trial for the balloon in
real service came off in June, 1794, when Coutelle in person,
accompanied by two staff officers, in one of the four balloons
which the French Army had provided, made an ascent to
reconnoitre the Austrian forces at Fleurus.  They ascended
twice in one day, remaining aloft for some four hours, and, on
their second ascent being sighted, drew a brisk fire from the
enemy.  They were unharmed, however, and the successful
termination of the battle of Fleurus has been claimed as due in
large measure to the service rendered by that balloon.

The extraordinary fact that the use of the balloon was for many
years discontinued in the French Army is attributed to a
strangely superstitious prejudice entertained by Napoleon.  Las
Cases (in his "Private Life of Napoleon at St. Helena ")
relates an almost miraculous story of Napoleon's coronation. 
It appears that a sum of 23,500 francs was given to M. Garnerin
to provide a balloon ascent to aid in the celebrations, and, in
consequence, a colossal machine was made to ascend at 11 p.m. 
on December 16th from the front of Notre Dame, carrying 3,000
lights.  This balloon was unmanned, and at its departure
apparently behaved extremely well, causing universal delight. 
During the hours of darkness, however, it seems to have
acquitted itself in a strange and well-nigh preternatural
manner, for at daybreak it is sighted on the horizon by the
inhabitants of Rome, and seen to be coming towards their city. 
So true was its course that, as though with predetermined
purpose, it sails on till it is positively over St. Peter's and
the Vatican, when, its mission being apparently fulfilled, it
settles to earth, and finally ends its career in the Lake
Bracciano.  Regarded from whatever point of view, the flight
was certainly extraordinary, and it is not surprising that in
that age it was regarded as nothing less than a portent. 
Moreover, little details of the wonderful story were quickly
endowed with grave significance.  The balloon on reaching the
ground rent itself.  Next, ere it plunged into the water, it
carefully deposited a portion of its crown on the tomb of Nero. 
Napoleon, on learning the facts, forbade that they should ever
be referred to.  Further, he thenceforward discountenanced the
balloon in his army, and the establishment at Meudon was
abandoned.

There is record of an attempt of some sort that was made to
revive the French military ballooning school in the African
campaign of 1830, but it was barren of results.  Again, it has
been stated that the Austrians used balloons for
reconnaissance, before Venice in 1849, and yet again the same
thing is related of the Russians at the time of the siege of
Sebastopol, though Kinglake does not mention the circumstance. 
In 1846 Wise drew up and laid before the American War Office an
elaborate scheme for the reduction of Vera Cruz.  This will be
discussed in its due place, though it will be doubtless
considered as chimerical.

On the other hand, eminently practical were the experiments
co-ordinated and begun to be put to an actual test by Mr.
Coxwell, who, before he could duly impress his project upon the
military authorities, had to make preliminary trials in private
ventures.  The earliest of these was at the Surrey Zoological
Gardens in the autumn of 1854, and it will be granted that much
ingenuity and originality were displayed when it is considered
that at that date neither wireless telegraphy, electric
flashlight, nor even Morse Code signalling was in vogue. 
According to his announcement, the spectators were to regard
his balloon, captive or free, as floating at a certain altitude
over a beleaguered fortress, the authorities in communication
with it having the key of the signals and seeking to obtain
through these means information as to the approach of an enemy. 
It was to be supposed that, by the aid of glasses, a vast
distance around could be subjected to careful scrutiny, and a
constant communication kept up with the authorities in the
fortress.  Further, the flags or other signals were supposed
preconcerted and unknown to the enemy, being formed by
variations of shape and colour.  Pigeons were also despatched
from a considerable height to test their efficiency under novel
conditions.  The public press commented favourably on the
performance and result of this initial experiment.

Mr. Coxwell's account of an occasion when he had to try
conclusions with a very boisterous wind, and of the way in
which he negotiated a very trying and dangerous landing, will
be found alike interesting and instructive.  It was an ascent
from the Crystal Palace, and the morning was fair and of bright
promise outwardly; but Coxwell confesses to have disregarded a
falling glass.  The inflation having been progressing
satisfactorily, he retired to partake of luncheon, entirely
free from apprehensions; but while thus occupied, he was
presently sought out and summoned by a gardener, who told him
that his balloon had torn away, and was now completely out of
control, dragging his men about the bushes.  On reaching the
scene, the men, in great strength, were about to attempt a more
strenuous effort to drag the balloon back against the wind,
which Coxwell promptly forbade, warning them that so they would
tear all to pieces.  He then commenced, as it were, to "take in
a reef," by gathering in the slack of the silk, which chiefly
was catching the wind, and by drawing in the net, mesh by mesh,
until the more inflated portion of the balloon was left snug
and offering but little resistance to the gale, when he got her
dragged in a direction slanting to the wind and under the lee
of trees.

Eventually a hazardous and difficult departure was effected,
Mr. Chandler, a passenger already booked, insisting on
accompanying the aeronaut, in spite of the latter's strongest
protestations.  And their first peril came quickly, in a near
shave of fouling the balcony of the North Tower, which they
avoided only by a prompt discharge of sand, the crowd cheering
loudly as they saw how the crisis was avoided.  The car, adds
Mr. Coxwell in his memoirs, "was apparently trailing behind the
balloon with a pendulous swing, which is not often the case...
In less than two minutes we entered the lower clouds, passing
through them quickly, and noticing that their tops, which are
usually of white, rounded conformation, were torn into shreds
and crests of vapour.  Above, there was a second wild-looking
stratum of another order.  We could hear, as we hastened on,
the hum of the West End of London; but we were bowling along,
having little time to look about us, though some extra sandbags
were turned to good account by making a bed of them at the
bottom ends of the car, which we occupied in anticipation of a
rough landing."

As it came on to rain hard the voyagers agreed to descend, and
Coxwell, choosing open ground, succeeded in the oft-attempted
endeavour to drop his grapnel in front of a bank or hedge-row. 
The balloon pulled up with such a shock as inevitably follows
when flying at sixty miles an hour, and Mr. Coxwell continues:
--"We were at this time suspended like a kite, and it was not so
much the quantity of gas which kept us up as the hollow surface
of loose silk, which acted like a falling kite, and the obvious
game of skill consisted in not letting out too much gas to make
the balloon pitch heavily with a thud that would have been
awfully unpleasant; but to jockey our final touch in a gradual
manner, and yet to do it as quickly as possible for fear of the
machine getting adrift, since, under the peculiar circumstances
in which we were placed, it would have inevitably fallen with a
crushing blow, which might have proved fatal.  I never remember
to have been in a situation when more coolness and nicety were
required to overcome the peril which here beset us; while on
that day the strong wind was, strange as it may sound, helping
us to alight easily, that is to say as long as the grapnel held
fast and the balloon did not turn over like an unsteady kite."
Such peril as there was soon terminated without injury to
either voyager.

The same remark will apply to an occasion when Coxwell was
caught in a thunderstorm, which he thus describes in brief:--"On
a second ascent from Chesterfield we were carried into the
midst of gathering clouds, which began to flash vividly, and in
the end culminated in a storm.  There were indications, before
we left the earth, as to what might be expected.  The lower
breeze took us in another direction as we rose, but a gentle,
whirling current higher up got us into the vortex of a highly
charged cloud.... We had to prove by absolute experience
whether the balloon was insulated and a non-conductor.  Beyond
a drenching, no untoward incident occurred during a voyage
lasting in all three-quarters of an hour."

A voyage which Coxwell (referring, doubtless, to aerial travel
over English soil only) describes as "being so very much in
excess of accustomary trips in balloons" will be seen to fall
short of one memorable voyage of which the writer will have to
give his own experiences.  Some account, however, of what the
famous aeronaut has to tell will find a fitting place here.

It was an ascent on a summer night from North Woolwich, and on
this occasion Coxwell was accom- panied by two friends, one
being Henry Youens, who subsequently became a professional
balloonist of considerable repute, and who at this time was an
ardent amateur.  It was half an hour before midnight when the
party took their places, and, getting smartly away from the
crowd in the gala grounds, shot over the river, and shortly were
over the town of Greenwich with the lights of London well
ahead.  Then their course took them over Kennington Oval,
Vauxhall Bridge, and Battersea, when they presently heard the
strains of a Scotch polka.  This came up from the then famous
Gardens of Cremorne, and, the breeze freshening, it was but a
few minutes later when they stood over Kingston, by which time
it became a question whether, being now clear of London, they
should descend or else live out the night and take what thus
might come their way.  This course, as the most prudent, as
well as the most fascinating, was that which commended itself,
and at that moment the hour of midnight was heard striking,
showing that a fairly long distance had been covered in a short
interval of time.

From this period they would seem to have lost their way, and
though scattered lights were sighted ahead, they were soon in
doubt as to whether they might not already be nearing the sea,
a doubt that was strengthened by their hearing the cry of
sea-fowl.  After a pause, lights were seen looming under the
haze to sea-ward, which at times resembled water; and a tail
like that of a comet was discerned, beyond which was a black
patch of considerable size.

The patch was the Isle of Wight, and the tail the Water from
Southampton.  They were thus wearing more south and towards
danger.  They had no Davy lamp with which to read their
aneroid, and could only tell from the upward flight of
fragments of paper that they were descending.  Another
deficiency in their equipment was the lack of a trail rope to
break their fall, and for some time they were under unpleasant
apprehension of an unexpected and rude impact with the ground,
or collision with some undesirable object.  This induced them
to discharge sand and to risk the consequences of another rise
into space, and as they mounted they were not reassured by
sighting to the south a ridge of lighter colour, which strongly
suggested the coast line.

But it was midsummer, and it was not long before bird life
awakening was heard below, and then a streak of dawn revealed
their locality, which was over the Exe, with Sidmouth and Tor
Bay hard by on their left.  Then from here, the land jutting
seawards, they confidently traversed Dartmoor, and effected a
safe, if somewhat unseasonable, descent near Tavistock.  The
distance travelled was considerable, but the duration, on the
aeronaut's own showing, was less than five hours.

In the year 1859 the Times commented on the usefulness of
military balloons in language that fully justified all that
Coxwell had previously claimed for them.  A war correspondent,
who had accompanied the Austrian Army during that year, asks
pertinently how it had happened that the French had been ready
at six o'clock to make a combined attack against the Austrians,
who, on their part, had but just taken up positions on the
previous evening.  The correspondent goes on to supply the
answer thus:--"No sooner was the first Austrian battalion out
of Vallegio than a balloon was observed to rise in the air from
the vicinity of Monsambano--a signal, no doubt, for the French
in Castiglione.  I have a full conviction that the Emperor of
the French knew overnight the exact position of every Austrian
corps, while the Emperor of Austria was unable to ascertain the
number or distribution of the forces of the allies."

It appears that M. Godard was the aeronaut employed to observe
the enemy, and that fresh balloons for the French Army were
proceeded with.

The date was now near at hand when Coxwell, in partnership with
Mr. Glaisher, was to take part in the classical work which has
rendered their names famous throughout the world.  Before
proceeding to tell of that period, however, Mr. Coxwell has
done well to record one aerial adventure, which, while but
narrowly missing the most serious consequences, gives a very
practical illustration of the chances in favour of the aeronaut
under extreme circumstances.

It was an ascent at Congleton in a gale of wind, a and the
company of two passengers--Messrs. Pearson, of Lawton
Hall--was pressed upon him.  Everything foretold a rough
landing, and some time after the start was made the outlook was
not improved by the fact that the dreaded county of Derbyshire
was seen approaching; and it was presently apparent that the
spot on which they had decided to descend was faced by rocks
and a formidable gorge.  On this, Coxwell attempted to drop his
grapnel in front of a stone wall, and so far with success; but
the wall went down, as also another and another, the wicker car
passing, with its great impetus, clean through the solid
obstacles, till at last the balloon slit from top to bottom. 
Very serious injuries to heads and limbs were sustained, but no
lives were lost, and Coxwell himself, after being laid up at
Buxton, got home on crutches.



CHAPTER XIII. SOME NOTEWORTHY ASCENTS.


It was the year 1862, and the scientific world in England
determined once again on attempting observational work in
connection with balloons.  There had been a meeting of the
British Association at Wolverhampton, and, under their
auspices, and with the professional services of Thomas Lythgoe,
Mr. Creswick, of Greenwich Observatory, was commissioned to
make a lofty scientific ascent with a Cremorne balloon.  The
attempt, however, was unsatisfactory; and the balloon being
condemned, an application was made to Mr. Coxwell to provide a
suitable craft, and to undertake its management.  The
principals of the working committee were Colonel Sykes, M.P.,
Dr. Lee, and Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., and a short conference
between these gentlemen and the experienced aeronaut soon made
it clear that a mammoth balloon far larger than any in
existence was needed for the work in hand.  But here a fatal
obstacle presented itself in lack of funds, for it transpired
that the grant voted was only to be devoted to trial ascents.

It was then that Mr. Coxwell, with characteristic enterprise,
undertook, at his own cost, to build a suitable balloon, and,
moreover, to have it ready by Midsummer Day.  It was a bold, as
well as a generous, offer; for it was now March, and, according
to Mr. Coxwell's statement, if silk were employed, the
preparation and manufacture would occupy six months and cost
not less than L2,000.  The fabric chosen was a sort of American
cloth, and by unremitting efforts the task was performed to
time, and the balloon forwarded to Wolverhampton, its
dimensions being 55 feet in diameter, 80 feet in height from
the ground, with a capacity of 93,000 cubic feet.  But the best
feature in connection with it was the fact that Mr. Glaisher
himself was to make the ascents as scientific observer.

No time was lost in getting to work, but twice over the chosen
days were unsuitable, and it was not till July 17th that the
two colleagues, of whom so much is to be told, got away at 9.30
a.m. with their balloon only two-thirds full, to allow of
expansion to take place in such a lofty ascent as was
contemplated.  And, when it is considered that an altitude of
five miles was reached, it will be granted that the scientific
gentleman who was making his maiden ascent that day showed
remarkable endurance and tenacity of purpose--the all-important
essential for the onerous and trying work before him.  At 9.56
the balloon had disappeared from sight, climbing far into the
sky in the E.N.E.  The story of the voyage we must leave in Mr.
Glaisher's hands.  Certain events, however, associated with
other aeronauts, which had already happened, and which should
be considered in connection with the new drama now to be
introduced, may fittingly here meet with brief mention.

The trouble arising from the coasting across country of a
fallen and still half-inflated balloon has already been
sufficiently illustrated, and needs little further discussion. 
It is common enough to see a balloon, when full and round,
struggling restively under a moderate breeze with a score of
men, and dragging them, and near a ton of sand-bags as well,
about the starting ground.  But, as has already been pointed
out, the power of the wind on the globe is vastly increased
when the silk becomes slack and forms a hollow to hold the
wind, like a bellying sail.  Various means to deal with this
difficulty have been devised, one of these being an emergency,
or ripping valve, in addition to the ordinary valve, consisting
of an arrangement for tearing a large opening in the upper part
of one of the gores, so that on reaching earth the balloon may
be immediately crippled and emptied of so large a quantity of
gas as to render dragging impossible.  Such a method is not
altogether without drawbacks, one of these being the confusion
liable to arise from there being more than one valve line to
reckon with.  To obviate this, it has been suggested that the
emergency line should be of a distinctive colour.

But an experiment with a safeguard to somewhat of this nature
was attended with fatal consequence in the year 1824.  A Mr.
Harris, a lieutenant in the British Navy, ascended from the
Eagle Tavern, City Road, with a balloon fitted with a
contrivance of his own invention, consisting of a large hinged
upper valve, having within it a smaller valve of the same
description, the idea being that, should the operation of the
smaller outlet not suffice for any occasion, then the shutter
of the larger opening might be resorted to, to effect a more
liberal discharge of gas.

Mr. Harris took with him a young lady, Miss Stocks by name, and
apparently the afternoon--it being late May-- was favourable
for an aerial voyage; for, with full reliance on his apparatus,
he left his grapnel behind, and was content with such
assistance as the girl might be able to render him.  It was not
long before the balloon was found descending, and with a
rapidity that seemed somewhat to disturb the aeronaut; and
when, after a re-ascent, effected by a discharge of ballast,
another decided downward tendency ensued, Mr. Harris clearly
realised that something was wrong, without, however, divining
the cause.  The story subsequently told by the girl was to the
effect that when the balloon was descending the second time she
was spoken to by her unfortunate companion in an anxious
manner.  "I then heard the balloon go 'Clap! clap!' and Mr.
Harris said he was afraid it was bursting, at which I fainted,
and knew no more until I found myself in bed."  A gamekeeper
tells the sequel, relating that he observed the balloon, which
was descending with great velocity, strike and break the head
of an oak tree, after which it also struck the ground. 
Hurrying up, he found the girl insensible, and Mr. Harris
already dead, with his breast bone and several ribs broken. 
The explanation of the accident given by Mr. Edward Spencer is
alike convincing and instructive.  This eminently practical
authority points out that the valve lines must have been made
taut to the hoop at the time that the balloon was full and
globular.  Thus, subsequently, when from diminution of gas the
balloon's shape elongated, the valve line would become strained
and begin to open the valve, but in such a gradual manner as to
escape the notice of the aeronaut.  Miss Stocks, far from being
unnerved by the terrible experience, actually made three
subsequent ascents in company with Mr. Green.

It deserves mention that another disaster, equally instructive,
but happily not attended with loss of life, occurred in Dublin
in 1844 to Mr. Hampton, who about this time made several public
and enterprising voyages.  He evidently was possessed of
admirable nerve and decision, and did not hesitate to make an
ascent from the Porto-Bello Gardens in face of strong wind
blowing sea-wards, and in spite of many protestations from the
onlookers that he was placing himself in danger.  This danger
he fully realised, more particularly when he recognised that
the headland on which he hoped to alight was not in the
direction of the wind's course.  Resolved, however, on
gratifying the crowd, Mr. Hampton ascended rapidly, and then
with equal expedition commenced a precipitate descent, which he
accomplished with skill and without mishap.  But the wind was
still boisterous, and the balloon sped onward along the ground
towards fresh danger unforeseen, and perhaps not duly reckoned
with.  Ahead was a cottage, the chimney of which was on fire. 
A balloonist in these circumstances is apt to think little of a
single small object in his way, knowing how many are the
chances of missing or of successfully negotiating any such
obstacle.  The writer on one occasion was, in the judgment of
onlookers below, drifting in dangerous proximity to the awful
Cwmavon stack in Glamorganshire, then in full blast; yet it was
a fact that that vast vent of flame and smoke passed almost
unheeded by the party in the descending car.  It may have been
thus, also, with Mr. Hampton, who only fully realised his
danger when his balloon blew up "with an awfully grand
explosion," and he was reduced to the extremity of jumping for
his life, happily escaping the mass of burning silk and ropes.

The awful predicament of falling into the sea, which has been
illustrated already, and which will recur again in these pages,
was ably and successfully met by Mr. Cunningham, who made an
afternoon ascent from the Artillery Barracks at Clevedon,
reaching Snake Island at nightfall, where, owing to the
gathering darkness, he felt constrained to open his valve.  He
quickly commenced descending into the sea, and when within ten
feet of the water, turned the "detaching screw" which connected
the car with the balloon.  The effect of this was at once to
launch him on the waves, but, being still able to keep control
over the valve, he allowed just enough gas to remain within the
silk to hold the balloon above water.  He then betook himself
to the paddles with which his craft was provided, and reached
Snake Island with the balloon in tow.  Here he seems to have
found good use for a further portion of his very complete
equipment; for, lighting a signal rocket, he presently brought
a four-oared gig to his succour from Portsmouth Harbour.

The teaching of the above incident is manifest enough.  If it
should be contemplated to use the balloon for serious or
lengthened travel anywhere within possible reach of the
sea-board--and this must apply to all parts of the British
Isles--it must become a wise precaution, if not an absolute
necessity, to adopt some form of car that would be of avail in
the event of a fall taking place in the sea.  Sufficient
confirmation of this statement will be shortly afforded by a
memorable voyage accomplished during the partnership of Messrs. 
Glaisher and Coxwell, one which would certainly have found the
travellers in far less jeopardy had their car been convertible
into a boat.  We have already seen how essential Wise
considered this expedient in his own bolder schemes, and it may
further be mentioned here that modern air ships have been
designed with the intention of making the water a perfectly
safe landing.

The ballooning exploits which, however, we have now to recount
had quite another and more special object consistently in
view--that of scientific investigation; and we would here
premise that the proper appreciation of these investigations
will depend on a due understanding of the attendant
circumstances, as also of the constant characteristic behaviour
of balloons, whether despatched for mere travel or research.

First let us regard the actual path of a balloon in space when
being manoeuvred in the way we read of in Mr. Glaisher's own
accounts.  This part is in most cases approximately indicated
in that most attractive volume of his entitled, "Travels in the
Air," by diagrams giving a sectional presentment of his more
important voyages; but a little commonplace consideration may
take the place of diagrams.

It has been common to assert that a balloon poised in space is
the most delicate balance conceivable.  Its intrinsic weight
must be exactly equal to the weight of the air it displaces,
and since the density of the air decreases according to a fixed
law, amounting, approximately, to a difference in barometric
reading of 0.1 inch for every 90 feet, it follows,
theoretically, that if a balloon is poised at 1,000 feet above
sea level, then it would not be in equilibrium at any other
height, so long as its weight and volume remain the same.  If
it were 50 feet higher it must commence descending, and, if
lower, then it must ascend till it reaches its true level; and,
more than that, in the event of either such excursion mere
impetus would carry it beyond this level, about which it would
oscillate for a short time, after the manner of the pendulum. 
This is substantially true, but it must be taken in connection
with other facts which have a far greater influence on a
balloon's position or motion.

For instance, in the volume just referred to it is stated by M.
Gaston Tissandier that on one occasion when aloft he threw
overboard a chicken bone, and, immediately consulting a
barometer, had to admit on "clearest evidence that the bone had
caused a rise of from twenty to thirty yards, so delicately is
a balloon equipoised in the air."  Here, without pausing to
calculate whether the discharge of an ounce or so would suffice
to cause a large balloon to ascend through ninety feet, it may
be pointed out that the record cannot be trustworthy, from the
mere fact that a free balloon is from moment to moment being
subjected to other potent influences, which necessarily affect
its position in space.  In daytime the sun's influence is an
all-important factor, and whether shining brightly or partially
hidden by clouds, a slight difference in obscuration will have
a ready and marked effect on the balloon's altitude.  Again, a
balloon in transit may pass almost momentarily from a warmer
layer of air to a colder, or vice versa, the plane of
demarcation between the two being very definite and abrupt, and
in this case altitude is at once affected; or, yet again, there
are the descending and ascending currents, met with constantly
and unexpectedly, which have to be reckoned with.

Thus it becomes a fact that a balloon's vertical course is
subjected to constant checks and vicissitudes from a variety of
causes, and these will have to be duly borne in mind when we
are confronted with the often surprising results and readings
which are supplied by scientific observers.  With regard to the
close proximity, without appreciable intermingling, of widely
differing currents, it should be mentioned that explorers have
found in regions where winds of different directions pass each
other that one air stream appears actually to drag against the
surface of the other, as though admitting no interspace where
the streams might mingle.  Indeed, trustworthy observers have
stated that even a hurricane can rage over a tranquil
atmosphere with a sharply defined surface of demarcation
between calm and storm.  Thus, to quote the actual words of
Charles Darwin, than whom it is impossible to adduce a more
careful witness, we find him recording how on mountain heights
he met with winds turbulent and unconfined, yet holding courses
"like rivers within their beds."

It is in tracing the trend of upper air streams, to whose
wayward courses and ever varying conditions we are now to be
introduced, that much of our most valuable information has
come, affecting the possibility of forecasting British wind and
weather.  It should need no insisting on that the data required
by meteorologists are not sufficiently supplied by the readings
of instruments placed on or near the ground, or by the set of
the wind as determined by a vane planted on the top of a pole
or roof of a building.  The chief factors in our meteorology
are rather those broader and deeper conditions which obtain in
higher regions necessarily beyond our ken, until those regions
are duly and diligently explored.

Mr. Glaisher's estimate of the utility of the balloon as an
instrument of research, formed at the conclusion of his
aeronautical labours, has a special value and significance. 
Speaking with all the weight attaching to so trained and
eminent an observer, he declares, "The balloon, considered as
an instrument for vertical exploration, presents itself to us
under a variety of aspects, each of which is fertile in
suggestions.  Regarding the atmosphere as the great laboratory
of changes which contain the germ of future dis discoveries, to
belong respectively, as they unfold, to the chemist and
meteorologist, the physical relation to animal life of
different heights, the form of death which at certain
elevations waits to accomplish its destruction, the effect of
diminished pressure upon individuals similarly placed, the
comparison of mountain ascents with the experiences of
aeronauts, are some of the questions which suggest themselves
and faintly indicate enquiries which naturally ally themselves
to the course of balloon experiments.  Sufficiently varied and
important, they will be seen to rank the balloon as a valuable
aid to the uses of philosophy, and rescue it from the impending
degradation of continuing a toy fit only to be exhibited or to
administer to the pleasures of the curious and lovers of
adventure."

The words of the same authority as to the possible practical
development of the balloon as an aerial machine should likewise
be quoted, and will appear almost prophetic.  "In England the
subject of aero-station has made but little progress, and no
valuable invention has arisen to facilitate travelling in the
air.  In all my ascents I used the balloon as I found it.  The
desire which influenced me was to ascend to the higher regions
and travel by its means in furtherance of a better knowledge of
atmospheric phenomena.  Neither its management nor its
improvement formed a part of my plan.  I soon found that
balloon travelling was at the mercy of the wind, and I saw no
probability of any method of steering balloons being obtained. 
It even appeared to me that the balloon itself, admirable for
vertical ascents, was not necessarily a first step in aerial
navigation, and might possibly have no share in the solution of
the problem.  It was this conviction that led to the formation
of the Aeronautical Society a few years since under the
presidency of the Duke of Argyll.  In the number of
communications made to this society it is evident that many
minds are taxing their ingenuity to discover a mode of
navigating the air; all kinds of imaginary projects have been
suggested, some showing great mechanical ingenuity, but all
indicating the want of more knowledge of the atmosphere itself. 
The first great aim of this society is the connecting the
velocity of the air with its pressure on plane surfaces at
various inclinations.

"There seems no prospect of obtaining this relation otherwise
than by a careful series of experiments."



CHAPTER XIV. THE HIGHEST ASCENT ON RECORD.


Mr. Glaisher's instrumental outfit was on an elaborate and
costly scale, and the programme of experimental work drawn up
for him by the Committee of the British Association did not err
on the side of too much modesty.  In the first place the
temperature and moisture of the atmosphere were to be examined. 
Observations on mountain sides had determined that thermometers
showed a decrease of 1 degree F. for every 300 feet, and the
accuracy of this law was particularly to be tested.  Also,
investigations were to be made as to the distribution of vapour
below the clouds, in them, and above them.  Then careful
observations respecting the dew point were to be undertaken at
all accessible heights, and, more particularly, up to those
heights where man may be resident or troops may be located. 
The comparatively new instrument, the aneroid barometer,
extremely valuable, if only trustworthy, by reason of its
sensibility, portability and safety, was to be tested and
compared with the behaviour of a reliable mercurial barometer. 
Electrical conditions were to be examined; the presence of
ozone tested; the vibration of a magnet was again to be
resorted to to determine how far the magnetism of the earth
might be affected by height.  The solar spectrum was to be
observed; air was to be collected at different heights for
analysis; clouds, also upper currents, were to be reported on. 
Further observations were to be made on sound, on solar
radiation, on the actinic action of the sun, and on atmospheric
phenomena in general.

All this must be regarded as a large order where only a very
limited number of ascents were contemplated, and it may be
mentioned that some of the methods of investigation, as, for
instance, the use of ozone papers, would now be generally
considered obsolete; while the mechanical aspiration of
thermometers by a stream of air, which, as we have pointed out,
was introduced by Welsh, and which is strongly insisted on at
the present day, was considered unnecessary by Mr. Glaisher in
the case of wet and dry bulb hygrometers.  The entire list of
instruments, as minutely described by the talented observer,
numbered twenty-two articles, among which were such
irreproachable items as a bottle of water and a pair of
scissors.

The following is a condensed account, gathered from Mr.
Glaisher's own narrative, of his first ascent, which has been
already briefly sketched in these pages by the hand of Mr.
Coxwell.  Very great difficulties were experienced in the
inflation, which operation appeared as if it would never be
completed, for a terrible W.S.W. wind was constantly blowing,
and the movements of the balloon were so great and so rapid
that it was impossible to fix a single instrument in its
position before quitting the earth, a position of affairs
which, says Mr. Glaisher, "was by no means cheering to a novice
who had never before put his foot in the car of a balloon," and
when, at last, at 9.42 a.m., Mr. Coxwell cast off, there was no
upward motion, the car simply dragging on its side till the
expiration  of a whole minute, when the balloon lifted, and in
six minutes reached the first cloud at an altitude of 4,467
feet.  This cloud was passed at 5,802 feet, and further cloud
encountered at 2,000 feet further aloft.  Four minutes later,
the ascent proceeding, the sun shone out brightly, expanding
the balloon into a perfect globe and displaying a magnificent
view, which, however, the incipient voyager did not allow
himself to enjoy until the instruments were arranged in due
order, by which time a height of 10,000 feet was recorded.

Mr. Glaisher apparently now had opportunity for observing the
clouds, which he describes as very beautiful, and he records
the hearing of a band of music at a height of 12,709 feet,
which was attained in exactly twenty minutes from the start.  A
minute later the earth was sighted through a break in the
clouds, and at 16,914 feet the clouds were far below, the sky
above being perfectly cloudless, and of an intense Prussian
blue.

By this time Mr. Glaisher had received his first surprise, as
imparted by the record of his instruments.  At starting, the
temperature of the air had stood at 59 degrees.  Then at 4,000
feet this was reduced to 45 degrees; and, further, to 26 degrees
at 10,000 feet, when it remained stationary through an ascent of
3,000 feet more, during which period both travellers added to
their clothing, anticipating much accession of cold.  However,
at 15,500 feet the temperature had actually risen to 31
degrees, increasing to no less than 42 degrees at 19,500 feet.

Astonishing as this discovery was, it was not the end of the
wonder, for two minutes later, on somewhat descending, the
temperature commenced decreasing so rapidly as to show a fall
of 27 degrees in 26 minutes.  As to personal experiences, Mr.
Glaisher should be left to tell his own story.  "At the height
of 18,844 feet 18 vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied
26.8 seconds, and at the same height my pulse beat at the rate
of 100 pulsations per minute.  At 19,415 feet palpitation of
the heart became perceptible, the beating of the chronometer
seemed very loud, and my breathing became affected.  At 19,435
feet my pulse had accelerated, and it was with increasing
difficulty that I could read the instruments; the palpitation
of the heart was very perceptible; the hands and lips assumed a
dark bluish colour, but not the face.  At 20,238 feet 28
vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied 43 seconds.  At
21,792 feet I experienced a feeling analogous to sea-sickness,
though there was neither pitching nor rolling in the balloon,
and through this illness I was unable to watch the instrument
long enough to lower the temperature to get a deposit of dew. 
The sky at this elevation was of a very deep blue colour, and
the clouds were far below us.  At 22,357 feet I endeavoured to
make the magnet vibrate, but could not; it moved through arcs
of about 20 degrees, and then settled suddenly.

"Our descent began a little after 11 a.m., Mr. Coxwell
experiencing considerable uneasiness at our too close vicinity
to the Wash.  We came down quickly from a height of 16,300 feet
to one of 12,400 feet in one minute; at this elevation we
entered into a dense cloud which proved to be no less than 8,000
feet in thickness and whilst passing through this the balloon
was invisible from the car.  From the rapidity of the descent
the balloon assumed the shape of a parachute, and though Mr.
Coxwell had reserved a large amount of ballast, which he
discharged as quickly as possible, we collected so much weight
by the condensation of the immense amount of vapour through
which we passed that, notwithstanding all his exertions, we
came to the earth with a very considerable shock, which broke
nearly all the instruments.... The descent took place at
Langham, near Oakham."

Just a month later Mr. Glaisher, bent on a yet loftier
climb, made his second ascent, again under Mr. Coxwell's
guidance, and again from Wolverhampton.  Besides attending to
his instruments he found leisure to make other chance notes by
the way.  He was particularly struck by the beauty of masses
of cloud, which, by the time 12,000 feet were reached, were far
below, "presenting at times mountain scenes of endless variety
and grandeur, while fine dome-like clouds dazzled and charmed
the eye with alternations and brilliant effects of light and
shade."

When a height of about 20,000 feet had been reached thunder was
heard twice over, coming from below, though no clouds could be
seen.  A height of 4,000 feet more was attained, and shortly
after this Mr. Glaisher speaks of feeling unwell.  It was
difficult to obtain a deposit of dew on the hygrometer, and the
working of the aspirator became troublesome.  While in this
region a sound like that of loud thunder came from the sky. 
Observations were practically completed at this point, and a
speedy and safe return to earth was effected, the landing being
at Solihull, seven miles from Birmingham.

It was on the 5th of September following that the same two
colleagues carried out an exploit which will always stand alone
in the history of aeronautics, namely, that of ascending to an
altitude which, based on the best estimate they were able to
make, they calculated to be no less than seven miles.  Whatever
error may have unavoidably come into the actual estimate, which
is to some extent conjectural, is in reality a small matter,
not the least affecting the fact that the feat in itself will
probably remain without a parallel of its kind.  In these days,
when aeronauts attempt to reach an exceptionally lofty
altitude, they invariably provide themselves with a cylinder of
oxygen gas to meet the special emergencies of the situation, so
that when regions of such attenuated air are reached that the
action of heart and lungs becomes seriously affected, it is
still within their power to inhale the life-giving gas which
affords the greatest available restorative to their energies. 
Forty years ago, however, cylinders of compressed oxygen gas
were not available, and on this account alone we may state
without hesitation that the enterprise which follows stands
unparalleled at the present hour.

The filling station at Wolverhampton was quitted at 1.3 p.m.,
the temperature of the air being 59 degrees on the ground, and
falling to 41 degrees at an altitude of 5,000 feet, directly
after which a dense cloud was entered, which brought the
temperature down to 36 degrees.  At this elevation the report of
a gun was heard.  Here Mr. Glaisher attempted (probably for the
first time in history) to take a cloud-scape photograph, the
illumination being brilliant, and the plates with which he was
furnished being considered extremely sensitive.  The attempt,
however, was unsuccessful.  The height of two miles was reached
in 19 minutes, and here the temperature was at freezing point. 
In six minutes later three miles was reached, and the
thermometer was down to 18 degrees.  In another twelve minutes
four miles was attained, with the thermometer recording 8
degrees, and by further discharge of sand the fifth aerial
milestone was passed at 1.50 p.m., i.e. in 47 minutes from the
start, with the thermometer 2 degrees below zero.

Mr. Glaisher relates that up to this point he had taken
observations with comfort, and experienced no trouble in
respiration, whilst Mr. Coxwell, in consequence of the
exertions he had to make, was breathing with difficulty.  More
sand was now thrown out, and as the balloon rose higher Mr.
Glaisher states that he found some difficulty in seeing
clearly.  But from this point his experiences should be
gathered from his own words:--

"About 1.52 p.m., or later, I read the dry bulb thermometer as
minus five; after this I could not see the column of mercury in
the wet bulb thermometer, nor the hands of the watch, nor the
fine divisions on any instrument.  I asked Mr. Coxwell to help
me to read the instruments.  In consequence, however, of the
rotatory motion of the balloon, which had continued without
ceasing since leaving the earth, the valve line had become
entangled, and he had to leave the car and mount into the ring
to readjust it.  I then looked at the barometer, and found its
reading to be 9 3/4 inches, still decreasing fast, implying a
height exceeding 29,000 feet.  Shortly after, I laid my arm
upon the table, possessed of its full vigour; but on being
desirous of using it I found it powerless--it must have lost
its power momentarily.  Trying to move the other arm, I found
it powerless also.  Then I tried to shake myself, and
succeeded, but I seemed to have no limbs.  In looking at the
barometer my head fell over my left shoulder.  I struggled and
shook my body again, but could not move my arms.  Getting my
head upright for an instant only, it fell on my right shoulder;
then I fell backwards, my back resting against the side of the
car and my head on its edge.  In this position my eyes were
directed to Mr. Coxwell in the ring.  When I shook my body I
seemed to have full power over the muscles of the back, and
considerably so over those of the neck, but none over either my
arms or my legs.  As in the case of the arms, so all muscular
power was lost in an instant from my back and neck.  I dimly
saw Mr. Coxwell, and endeavoured to speak, but could not.  In
an instant intense darkness overcame me, so that the optic
nerve lost power suddenly; but I was still conscious, with as
active a brain as at the present moment whilst writing this.  I
thought I had been seized with asphyxia, and believed I should
experience nothing more, as death would come unless we speedily
descended.  Other thoughts were entering my mind when I
suddenly became unconscious, as on going to sleep.  I cannot
tell anything of the sense of hearing, as no sound reaches the
ear to break the perfect stillness and silence of the regions
between six and seven miles above the earth.  My last
observation was made at 1.54 p.m., above 29,000 feet.  I
suppose two or three minutes to have elapsed between my eyes
becoming insensible to seeing fine divisions and 1.54 p.m., and
then two or three minutes more to have passed till I was
insensible, which I think, therefore, took place about 1.56
p.m. or 1.57 p.m.

"Whilst powerless, I heard the words 'Temperature' and
'Observation,' and I knew Mr. Coxwell was in the car speaking
to and endeavouring to rouse me--therefore consciousness and
hearing had returned.  I then heard him speak more
emphatically, but could not see, speak, or move.  I heard him
again say, 'Do try, now do!'  Then the instruments became dimly
visible, then Mr. Coxwell, and very shortly I saw clearly. 
Next, I arose in my seat and looked around, as though waking
from sleep, though not refreshed, and said to Mr. Coxwell, 'I
have been insensible.'  He said, 'You have, and I too, very
nearly.'  I then drew up my legs, which had been extended, and
took a pencil in my hand to begin observations.  Mr. Coxwell
told me that he had lost the use of his hands, which were
black, and I poured brandy over them."

Mr. Glaisher considers that he must have been totally
insensible for a period of about seven minutes, at the end of
which time the water reserved for the wet bulb thermometer,
which he had carefully kept from freezing, had become a solid
block of ice.  Mr. Coxwell's hands had become frostbitten, so
that, being in the ring and desirous of coming to his friend's
assistance, he was forced to rest his arms on the ring and drop
down.  Even then, the table being in the way, he was unable to
approach, and, feeling insensibility stealing over himself, he
became anxious to open the valve.  "But in consequence of
having lost the use of his hands he could not do this. 
Ultimately he succeeded by seizing the cord in his teeth and
dipping his head two or three times until the balloon took a
decided turn downwards."  Mr. Glaisher adds that no
inconvenience followed his insensibility, and presently
dropping in a country where no conveyance of any kind could be
obtained, he was able to walk between seven and eight miles.

The interesting question of the actual height attained is thus
discussed by Mr. Glaisher:--"I have already said that my last
observation was made at a height of 29,000 feet.  At this time,
1.54 p.m., we were ascending at the rate of 1,000 feet per
minute, and when I resumed observations we were descending at
the rate of 2,000 feet per minute.  These two positions must be
connected, taking into account the interval of time between,
namely, thirteen minutes; and on these considerations the
balloon must have attained the altitude of 36,000 or 37,000
feet.  Again, a very delicate minimum thermometer read minus
11.9, and this would give a height of 37,000 feet.  Mr.
Coxwell, on coming from the ring, noticed that the centre of
the aneroid barometer, its blue hand, and a rope attached to
the car, were all in the same straight line, and this gave a
reading of seven inches, and leads to the same result. 
Therefore, these independent means all lead to about the same
elevation, namely, fully seven miles."

So far we have followed Mr. Glaisher's account only, but Mr.
Coxwell has added testimony of his own to this remarkable
adventure, which renders the narrative more complete.  He
speaks of the continued rotation of the balloon and the
necessity for mounting into the ring to get possession of the
valve line.  "I had previously," he adds, "taken off a thick
pair of gloves so as to be the better able to manipulate the
sand-bags, and the moment my unprotected hands rested on the
ring, which retained the temperature of the air, I found that
they were frost-bitten; but I did manage to bring down with me
the valve line, after noticing the hand of the aneroid
barometer, and it was not long before I succeeded in opening
the shutters in the way described by Mr. Glaisher.... Again, on
letting off more gas, I perceived that the lower part of the
balloon was rapidly shrinking, and I heard a sighing, as if it
were in the network and the ruffled surface of the cloth.  I
then looked round, although it seemed advisable to let off more
gas, to see if I could in any way assist Mr. Glaisher, but the
table of instruments blocked the way, and I could not, with
disabled hands, pass beneath.  My last hope, then, was in
seeking the restorative effects of a warmer stratum of
atmosphere.... Again I tugged at the valve line, taking stock,
meanwhile, of the reserve ballast in store, and this, happily,
was ample.

"Never shall I forget those painful moments of doubt and
suspense as to Mr. Glaisher's fate, when no response came to my
questions.  I began to fear that he would never take any more
readings.  I could feel the reviving effects of a warmer
temperature, and wondered that no signs of animation were
noticeable.  The hand of the aneroid that I had looked at was
fast moving, while the under part of the balloon had risen high
above the car.  I had looked towards the earth, and felt the
rush of air as it passed upwards, but was still in despair when
Mr. Glaisher gasped with a sigh, and the next moment he drew
himself up and looked at me rather in confusion, and said he
had been insensible, but did not seem to have any clear idea of
how long until he caught up his pencil and noted the time and
the reading of the instruments."

The descent, which was at first very rapid, was effected
without difficulty at Cold Weston.



CHAPTER XV. FURTHER SCIENTIFIC VOYAGES OF GLAISHER AND COXWELL.


Early in the following spring we find the same two aeronauts
going aloft again on a scientific excursion which had a
termination nearly as sensational as the last.  The ascent was
from the Crystal Palace, and the intention being to make a very
early start the balloon for this purpose had been partially
filled overnight; but by the morning the wind blew strongly,
and, though the ground current would have carried the voyagers
in comparative safety to the southwest, several pilots which
were dismissed became, at no great height, carried away due
south.  On this account the start was delayed till 1 p.m., by
which time the sky had nearly filled in, with only occasional
gleams of sun between the clouds.  It seemed as if the
travellers would have to face the chance of crossing the
Channel, and while, already in the car, they were actually
discussing this point, their restraining rope broke, and they
were launched unceremoniously into the skies.  This occasioned
an unexpected lurch to the car, which threw Mr. Glaisher among
his instruments, to the immediate destruction of some of them.

Another result of this abrupt departure was a very rapid rise,
which took the balloon a height of 3,000 feet in three minutes'
space, and another 4,000 feet higher in six minutes more. 
Seven thousand feet vertically in nine minutes is fast pace;
but the voyagers were to know higher speed yet that day when
the vertical motion was to be in the reverse and wrong
direction.  At the height now reached they were in cloud, and
while thus enveloped the temperature, as often happens,
remained practically stationary at about 32 degrees, while
that of the dew point increased several degrees.  But, on
passing out of the cloud, the two temperatures were very
suddenly separated, the latter decreasing rapidly under a deep
blue upper sky that was now without a cloud.  Shortly after
this the temperature dropped suddenly some 8 degrees, and then,
during the next 12,000 feet, crept slowly down by small stages.
Presently the balloon, reaching more than twenty thousand feet,
or, roughly, four miles, and still ascending, the thermometer
was taken with small fits of rising and falling alternately
till an altitude of 24,000 feet was recorded, at which point
other and more serious matters intruded themselves.

The earth had been for a considerable time lost to view, and
the rate and direction of recent progress had become merely
conjectural.  What might be taking place in these obscured and
lofty regions?  It would be as well to discover.  So the valve
was opened rather freely, with the result that the balloon
dropped a mile in three minutes.  Then another mile slower, by a
shade.  Then at 12,000 feet a cloud layer was reached, and
shortly after the voyagers broke through into the clear below.

At that moment Mr. Glaisher, who was busy with his instruments,
heard Mr. Coxwell make an exclamation which caused him to look
over the car, and he writes, "The sea seemed to be under us. 
Mr. Coxwell again exclaimed, 'There's not a moment to spare:  we
must save the land at all risks.  Leave the instruments.'  Mr.
Coxwell almost hung to the valve line, and told me to do the
same, and not to mind its cutting my hand.  It was a bold
decision opening the valve in this way, and it was boldly
carried out."  As may be supposed, the bold decision ended with
a crash.  The whole time of descending the four and a quarter
miles was a quarter of an hour, the last two miles taking four
minutes only.  For all that, there was no penalty beyond a few
bruises and the wrecking of the instruments, and when land was
reached there was no rebound; the balloon simply lay inert hard
by the margin of the sea.  This terrific experience in its
salient details is strangely similar to that already recorded
by Albert Smith.

In further experimental labours conducted during the summer of
this year, many interesting facts stand out prominently among a
voluminous mass of observations.  In an ascent in an east wind
from the Crystal Palace in early July it was found that the
upper limit of that wind was reached at 2,400 feet, at which
level an air-stream from the north was encountered; but at
3,000 feet higher the wind again changed to a current from the
N.N.W.  At the height, then, of little more than half a mile,
these upper currents were travelling leisurely; but what was
more noteworthy was their humidity, which greatly increased
with altitude, and a fact which may often be noted here
obtruded itself, namely, when the aeronauts were at the
upperlimits of the east wind, flat-bottomed cumulus clouds were
floating at their level.  These clouds were entirely within the
influence of the upper or north wind, so that their under sides
were in contact with the east wind, i.e. with a much drier
air, which at once dissipated all vapour in contact with it,
and thus presented the appearance of flat-bottomed clouds.  It
is a common experience to find the lower surface of a cloud
mowed off flat by an east wind blowing beneath it.

At the end of June a voyage from Wolverton was accomplished,
which yielded remarkable results of much real value and
interest.  The previous night had been perfectly calm, and
through nearly the whole morning the sun shone in a clear blue
sky, without a symptom of wind or coming change.  Shortly
before noon, however, clouds appeared aloft, and the sky
assumed an altered aspect.  Then the state of things quickly
changed.  Wind currents reached the earth blowing strongly, and
the half-filled balloon began to lurch to such an extent that
the inflation could only with difficulty be proceeded with. 
Fifty men were unable to hold it in sufficient restraint to
prevent rude bumping of the car on the ground, and when, at
length, arrangements were complete and release effected, rapid
discharge of ballast alone saved collision with neighbouring
buildings.

It was now that the disturbance overhead came under
investigation; and, considering the short period it had been in
progress, proved most remarkable, the more so the further it
was explored.  At 4,000 feet they plunged into the cloud
canopy, through which as it was painfully cold, they, sought to
penetrate into the clear above, feeling confident of finding
themselves, according to their usual experience, in bright
blue sky, with the sun brilliantly shining.  On the contrary,
however, the region they now entered was further obscured with
another canopy of cloud far up.  It was while they were
traversing this clear interval that a sound unwonted in balloon
travel assailed their ears. This was the "sighing, or rather
moaning, of the wind as preceding a storm."  Rustling of the
silk within the cordage is often heard aloft, being due to
expansion of gas or similar cause; but the aeronauts soon
convinced themselves that what they heard was attributable to
nothing else than the actual conflict of air currents beneath.
Then they reached fog--a dry fog--and, passing through it,
entered a further fog, but wetting this time, and within the
next 1,000 feet they were once again in fog that was dry; and
then, reaching three miles high and seeing struggling sunbeams,
they looked around and saw cloud everywhere, below, above, and
far clouds on their own level.  The whole sky had filled in
most completely since the hours but recently passed, when they
had been expatiating on the perfect serenity of the empty
heavens.

Still they climbed upwards, and in the next 2,000 feet had
entered further fog, dry at first, but turning wetter as they
rose.  At four miles high they found themselves on a level with
clouds, whose dark masses and fringed edges proved them to be
veritable rain clouds; and, while still observing them, the fog
surged up again and shut out the view, and by the time they had
surmounted it they were no less than 23,000 feet up, or higher
than the loftiest of the Andes. Even here, with cloud masses
still piling high overhead, the eager observer, bent on further
quests, was for pursuing the voyage; but Mr. Coxwell interposed
with an emphatic, "Too short of sand!" and the downward journey
had to be commenced.  Then phenomena similar to those already
described were experienced again--fog banks (sometimes wet,
sometimes dry), rain showers, and cloud strata of piercing
cold.  Presently, too, a new wonder for a midsummer
afternoon--a snow scene all around, and spicules of ice
settling and remaining frozen on the coatsleeve.  Finally
dropping to earth helplessly through the last 5,000 feet, with
all ballast spent, Ely Cathedral was passed at close quarters;
yet even that vast pile was hidden in the gloom that now lay
over all the land.

It was just a month later, and day broke with thoroughly dirty
weather, a heavy sky, and falling showers. This was the day of
all others that Mr. Glaisher was waiting for, having determined
on making special investigations concerning the formation of
rain in the clouds themselves.  It had long been noticed that,
in an ordinary way, if there be two rain gauges placed, one
near the surface of the ground, and another at a somewhat
higher elevation, then the lower gauge will collect most water. 
Does, then, rain condense in some appreciable quantity out of
the lowest level?  Again, during rain, is the air saturated
completely, and what regulates the quality of rainfall, for
rain sometimes falls in large drops and sometimes in minute
particles?  These were questions which Mr. Glaisher sought to
solve, and there was another.

Charles Green had stated as his conviction that whenever rain
was falling from an overcast sky there would always be found a
higher canopy of cloud over-hanging the lower stratum.  On the
day, then, which we are now describing, Mr. Glaisher wished to
put this his theory to the test; and, if correct, then he
desired to measure the space between the cloud layers, to gauge
their thickness, and to see if above the second stratum the sun
was shining.  The main details of the ascent read thus:--

In ten seconds they were in mist, and in ten seconds more were
level with the cloud.  At 1,200 feet they were out of the rain,
though not yet out of the cloud.  Emerging from the lower cloud
at 2,300 feet, they saw, what Green would have foretold, an
upper stratum of dark cloud above.  Then they made excursions
up and down, trying high and low to verify these conditions,
and passing through fogs both wet and dry, at last drifting
earthward, through squalls of wind and rain with drops as large
as fourpenny pieces, to find that on the ground heavy wet had
been ceaselessly falling.

A day trip over the eastern suburbs of London in the same year
seems greatly to have impressed Mr. Glaisher. The noise of
London streets as heard from above has much diminished during
the last fifteen years' probably owing to the introduction of
wood paving.  But, forty years ago, Mr. Glaisher describes the
deep sound of London as resembling the roar of the sea, when at
a mile high; while at greater elevations it was heard at a
murmuring noise.  But the view must have been yet more striking
than the hearing, for in one direction the white cliffs from
Margate to Dover were visible, while Brighton and the sea
beyond were sighted, and again all the coast line up to
Yarmouth yet the atmosphere that day, one might have thought,
should have been in turmoil, by reason of a conflict of
aircurrents; for, within two miles of the earth, the wind was
from the east; between two and three miles high it was exactly
opposite, being from the west; but at three miles it was N.E.;
while, higher, it was again directly opposite, or S.W.

During his researches so far Mr. Glaisher had found much that
was anomalous in the way of the winds, and in other elements
of weather.  He was destined to find much more.  It had been
commonly accepted that the temperature of the air decreases at
the average rate of 10 degrees  for every 300 feet of elevation,
and various computations, as, for example, those which relate
to the co-efficient of refraction, have been founded on this
basis; but Mr. Glaisher soon established that the above
generalisation had to be much modified.  The following,
gathered from his notes is a typical example of such surprises
as the aeronaut with due instrumental equipment may not
unfrequently meet with.

It was the 12th of January, 1864, with an air-current on the
ground from the S.E., of temperature 41 degrees,, which very
slowly decreased up to 1,600 feet when a warm S.W. current was
met with, and at 3,000 feet the temperature was 3 1/2 degrees
higher than on the earth.  Above the S.W. stream the air became
dry, and here the temperature decreased reasonably and
consistently with altitude; while fine snow was found falling
out of this upper space into the warmer stream below.  Mr.
Glaisher discusses the peculiarity and formation of this stream
in terms which will repay consideration.

"The meeting with this S.W. current is of the highest
importance, for it goes far to explain why England possesses a
winter temperature so much higher than is due to her northern
latitude.  Our high winter temperature has hitherto been mostly
referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream.  Without doubting
the influence of this natural agent, it is necessary to add the
effect of a parallel atmospheric current to the oceanic current
coming from the same region--a true aerial Gulf Stream.  This
great energetic current meets with no obstruction in coming to
us, or to Norway, but passes over the level Atlantic without
interruption from mountains.  It cannot, however, reach France
without crossing Spain and the lofty range of the Pyrenees, and
the effect of these cold mountains in reducing its temperature
is so great that the former country derives but little warmth
from it."

An ascent from Woolwich, arranged as near the equinox of that
year as could be managed, supplied some further remarkable
results.  The temperature, which was 45 degrees to begin with,
at 4.7 p.m., crept down fairly steadily till 4,000 feet
altitude was registered, when, in a region of warm fog, it
commenced rising abruptly, and at 7,500 feet, in blue sky,
stood at the same reading as when the balloon had risen only
1,500 feet.  Then, amid many anomalous vicissitudes, the most
curious, perhaps, was that recorded late in the afternoon,
when, at 10,000 feet, the air was actually warmer than when the
ascent began.

That the temperature of the upper air commonly commences to
rise after nightfall as the warmth radiated through day hours
off the earth collects aloft, is a fact well known to the
balloonist, and Mr. Glaisher carried out with considerable
success a well-arranged programme for investigating the facts
of the case.  Starting from Windsor on an afternoon of late
May, he so arranged matters that his departure from earth took
place about an hour and three quarters before sunset, his
intention being to rise to a definite height, and with as
uniform a speed as possible to time his descent so as to reach
earth at the moment of sundown; and then to re-ascend and
descend again m a precisely similar manner during an hour and
three-quarters after sunset, taking observations all the way. 
Ascending for the first flight, he left a temperature of 58
degrees  on the earth, and found it 55 degrees at 1,200 feet,
then 43 degrees at 3,600 feet, and 29 1/2 degrees at the
culminating point of 6,200 feet.  Then, during the descent, the
temperature increased, though not uniformly, till he was nearly
brushing the tops of the trees, where it was some 3 degrees 
colder than at starting.

It was now that the balloon, showing a little waywardness,
slightly upset a portion of the experiment, for, instead of
getting to the neighbourhood of earth just at the moment of
sunset, the travellers found themselves at that epoch 600 feet
above the ground, and over the ridge of a hill, on passing
which the balloon became sucked down with a down draught,
necessitating a liberal discharge of sand to prevent contact
with the ground.  This circumstance, slight in itself, caused
the lowest point of the descent to be reached some minutes
late, and, still more unfortunate, occasioned the ascent which
immediately followed to be a rapid one, too rapid, doubtless,
to give the registering instruments a fair chance; but one
principal record aimed at was obtained at least with sufficient
truth, namely, that at the culminating point, which again was
6,200 feet, the temperature read 35 degrees, or about 6 degrees 
warmer than when the balloon was at the same altitude a little
more than an hour before.  This comparatively warm temperature
was practically maintained for a considerable portion of the
descent.

We may summarise the principal of Mr. Glaisher's
generalisations thus, using as nearly as possible his own
words:--

"The decrease of temperature, with increase of elevation, has a
diurnal range, and depends upon the hour of the day, the
changes being the greatest at mid-day and the early part of the
afternoon, and decreasing to about sunset, when, with a clear
sky, there is little or no change of temperature for several
hundred feet from the earth; whilst, with a cloudy sky, the
change decreases from the mid-day hours at a less rapid rate to
about sunset, when the decrease is nearly uniform and at the
rate of 1 degree in 2,000 feet.

"Air currents differing in direction are almost always to be
met with.  The thicknesses of these were found to vary greatly. 
The direction of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of
the whole mass of air up to 20,000 feet nearly, whilst at other
times the direction changed within 500 feet of the earth
Sometimes directly opposite currents were met with."

With regard to the velocity of upper currents, as shown by the
travel of balloons, when the distances between the places of
ascent and descent are measured, it was always found that these
distances were very much greater than the horizontal movement
of the air, as measured by anemometers near the ground.



CHAPTER XVI. SOME FAMOUS FRENCH AERONAUTS.


By this period a revival of aeronautics in the land of its
birth had fairly set in.  Since the last ascents of Gay Lussac,
in 1804, already recorded, there had been a lull in ballooning
enterprise in France, and no serious scientific expeditions are
recorded until the year 1850, when MM. Baral and Bixio
undertook some investigations respecting the upper air, which
were to deal with its laws of temperature and humidity, with
the proportion of carbonic acid present in it, with solar heat
at different altitudes, with radiation and the polarisation of
light, and certain other interesting enquiries.

The first ascent, made in June from the Paris Observatory,
though a lofty one, was attended with so much danger and
confusion as to be barren of results.  The departure, owing to
stormy weather, was hurried and illordered, so that the
velocity in rising was excessive, the net constricted the
rapidly-swelling globe, and the volumes of out-rushing gas
half-suffocated the voyagers.  Then a large rent occurred,
which caused an alarmingly rapid fall, and the two philosophers
were reduced to the necessity of flinging away all they
possessed, their instruments only excepted.  The landing, in a
vineyard, was happily not attended with disaster, and within a
month the same two colleagues attempted a second aerial
excursion, again in wet weather.

It would seem as if on this occasion, as on the former one,
there was some lack of due management, for the car, suspended
at a long distance from the balloon proper, acquired violent
oscillations on leaving the ground, and dashing first against a
tree, and then against a mast, broke some of the instruments. 
A little later there occurred a repetition on a minor scale of
the aeronauts' previous mishap, for a rent appeared in the
silk, though, luckily, so low down in the balloon as to be of
small consequence, and eventually an altitude of some 19,000
feet was attained. At one time needles of ice were encountered
settling abundantly with a crackling sound upon their
notebooks.  But the most remarkable observation made during this
voyage related to an extraordinary fall of temperature which,
as recorded, is without parallel.  It took place in a cloud
mass, 15,000 feet thick, and amounted to a drop of from 15
degrees to -39 degrees.

In 1867 M. C. Flammarion made a few balloon ascents, ostensibly
for scientific research.  His account of these, translated by
Dr. T. L. Phipson, is edited by Mr. Glaisher, and many of the
experiences he relates will be found to contrast with those of
others.  His physical symptoms alone were remarkable, for on
one occasion, at an altitude of apparently little over 10,000
feet, he became unwell being affected with a sensation of
drowsiness, palpitation, shortness of breath, and singing in
the ears, which, after landing gave place to a "fit of
incessant gaping" while he states that in later voyages, at but
slightly greater altitudes, his throat and lungs became
affected, and he was troubled with presence of blood upon the
lips.  This draws forth a footnote from Mr. Glaisher, which
should be commended to all would-be sky voyagers.  It runs
thus:--"I have never experienced any of these effects till I
had long passed the heights reached by M. Flammarion, and at no
elevation was there the presence of blood."  However, M.
Flammarion adduces, at least, one reassuring fact, which will
be read with interest.  Once, having, against the entreaties of
his friends, ascended with an attack of influenza upon him, he
came down to earth again an hour or two afterwards with this
troublesome complaint completely cured.

It would seem as if the soil of France supplied the aeronaut
with certain phenomena not known in England, one of these
apparently being the occasional presence of butterflies
hovering round the car when at considerable heights.  M.
Flammarion mentions more than one occasion when he thus saw
them, and found them to be without sense of alarm at the
balloon or its passengers.  Again, the French observer seems
seldom to have detected those opposite airstreams which English
balloonists may frequently observe, and have such cause to be
wary of.  His words, as translated, are:--" t appears to me
that two or more currents, flowing in different directions, are
very rarely met with as we rise in the air, and when two layers
of cloud appear to travel in opposite directions the effect is
generally caused by the motion of one layer being more rapid
than the other, when the latter appears to be moving in a
contrary direction."  In continuation of these experiences, he
speaks of an occasion when, speeding through the air at the rate
of an ordinary express train, he was drawn towards a tempest by
a species of attraction.

The French aeronaut's estimate of what constitutes a terrific
rate of fall differs somewhat from that of others whose
testimony we have been recording.  In one descent, falling
(without reaching earth, however) a distance of 2,130 feet in
two minutes, he describes the earth rising up with frightful
rapidity, though, as will be observed, this is not nearly half
the speed at which either Mr. Glaisher or Albert Smith and his
companions were precipitated on to bare ground.  Very many
cases which we have cited go to show that the knowledge of the
great elasticity of a well-made wicker car may rob a fall
otherwise alarming of its terrors, while the practical
certainty that a balloon descending headlong will form itself
into a natural parachute, if properly managed, reduces
enormously the risk attending any mere impact with earth.  It
will be allowed by all experienced aeronauts that far worse
chances lie in some awkward alighting ground, or in the
dragging against dangerous obstacles after the balloon has
fallen.

Many of M. Flammarion's experiments are remarkable for their
simplicity.  Indeed, in some cases he would seem to have
applied himself to making trials the result of which could not
have been seriously questioned.  The following, quoting from
Dr. Phipson's translation, will serve as an example:--

"Another mechanical experiment was made in the evening, and
renewed next day.  I wished to verify Galileo's principle of
the independence of simultaneous motions.  According to this
principle, a body which is allowed to fall from another body in
motion participates in the motion of the latter; thus, if we
drop a marble from the masthead of a ship, it preserves during
its fall the rate of motion of the vessel, and falls at the
foot of the mast as if the ship were still.  Now, if a body
falls from a balloon, does it also follow the motion of the
latter, or does it fall directly to the earth in a line which
is perpendicular to the point at which we let it fall?  In the
first case its fall would be described by an oblique line. The
latter was found to be the fact, as we proved by letting a
bottle fall.  During its descent it partakes of the balloon's
motion, and until it reaches the earth is always seen
perpendicularly below the car."

An interesting phenomenon, relating to the formation of fog was
witnessed by M. Flammarion in one of his voyages.  He was
flying low with a fast wind, and while traversing a forest he
noticed here and there patches of light clouds, which,
remaining motionless in defiance of the strong wind, continued
to hang above the summits of the trees.  The explanation of
this can hardly be doubtful, being analogous to the formation
of a night-cap on a mountain peak where warm moist air-currents
become chilled against the cold rock surface, forming,
momentarily, a patch of cloud which, though constantly being
blown away, is as constantly re-formed, and thus is made to
appear as if stationary.

The above instructive phenomenon could hardly have been noticed
save by an aeronaut, and the same may be said of the
following.  Passing in a clear sky over the spot where the
Marne flows into the Seine, M. Flammarion notes that the water
of the Marne, which, as he says, is as yellow now as it was in
the time of Julius Caesar, does not mix with the green water of
the Seine, which flows to the left of the current, nor with the
blue water of the canal, which flows to the right.  Thus, a
yellow river was seen flowing between two distinct brooks,
green and blue respectively.

Here was optical evidence of the way in which streams of water
which actually unite may continue to maintain independent
courses.  We have seen that the same is true of streams of air,
and, where these traverse one another in a copious and complex
manner, we find, as will be shown, conditions produced that
cause a great deadening of sound; thus, great differences in
the travel of sound in the silent upper air can be noticed on
different days, and, indeed, in different periods of the same
aerial voyage.  M. Flammarion bears undeniable testimony to the
manner in which the equable condition of the atmosphere
attending fog enhances, to the aeronaut, the hearing of sounds
from below.  But when he gives definite heights as the range
limits of definite sounds it must be understood that these
ranges will be found to vary greatly according to
circumstances.  Thus, where it is stated that a man's voice
may make itself heard at 3,255 feet, it might be added that
sometimes it cannot be heard at a considerably less altitude;
and, again, the statement that the whistle of a locomotive
rises to near 10,000 feet, and the noise of a railway train to
8,200 feet, should be qualified an additional note to the
effect that both may be occasionally heard at distances vastly
greater.  But perhaps the most curious observation of M.
Flammarion respecting sounds aloft relates to that of echo.  To
his fancy, this had a vague depth, appearing also to  rise from
the horizon with a curious tone, as if it came from another
world.  To the writer, on the contrary, and to many fellow
observers who have specially experimented with this test of
sound, the echo has always appeared to come very much from the
right place--the spot nearly immediately below--and if this
suggested its coming from another world then the same would
have to be said of all echoes generally.

About the same period when M. Flammarion was conducting his
early ascents, MM. de Fonvielle and Tissandier embarked on
experimental voyages, which deserve some particular notice. 
Interest in the new revival of the art of aeronautics was
manifestly be coming reestablished in France, and though we
find enthusiasts more than once bitterly complaining of the
lack of financial assistance, still ballooning exhibitions,
wherever accomplished, never failed to arouse popular
appreciation.  But enthusiasm was by no means the universal
attitude with which the world regarded aerial enterprise.  A
remarkable and instructive instance is given to the contrary by
M. W. de Fonvielle himself.

He records an original ballooning exploit, organised at
Algiers, which one might have supposed would have caused a
great sensation, and to which he himself had called public
attention in the local journals.  The brothers Braguet were to
make an ascent from the Mustapha Plain in a small fire balloon
heated with burning straw, and this risky performance was
successfully carried out by the enterprising aeronauts.  But,
to the onlooker, the most striking feature of the proceeding
was the fact that while the Europeans present regarded the
spectacle with curiosity and pleasure, the native Mussulmans
did not appear to take the slightest interest in it; "And
this," remarked de Fonvielle, "was not the first time that
ignorant and fanatic people have been noted as manifesting
complete indifference to balloon ascents.  After the taking of
Cairo, when General Buonaparte wished to produce an effect upon
the inhabitants, he not only made them a speech, but
supplemented it with the ascent of a fire balloon.  The attempt
was a complete failure, for the French alone looked up to the
clouds to see what became of the balloon."

In the summer of 1867 an attempt was made to revive the long
extinct Aeronautic Company of France, established by De Guyton. 
The undertaking was worked with considerable energy.  Some
forty or fifty active recruits were pressed into the service, a
suitable captive balloon was obtained, thousands of spectators
came to watch the evolutions; and many were found to pay the
handsome fee of 100 francs for a short excursion in the air.
For all this, the effort was entirely abortive, and the
ballooning corps, as such, dropped out of existence.

A little while after this de Fonvielle, on a visit to England,
had a most pathetic interview with the veteran Charles Green,
who was living in comfortable retirement at Upper Holloway. 
The grand old man pointed to a well-filled portfolio in the
corner of his room, in which, he said, were accounts of all his
travels, that would require a lifetime to peruse and put in
order.  Green then took his visitor to the end of the narrow
court, and, opening the door of an outhouse, showed him the old
Nassau balloon.  "Here is my car," he said, touching it with a
kind of solemn respect, "which, like its old pilot, now reposes
quietly after a long and active career.  Here is the guide rope
which I imagined in former years, and which has been found very
useful to aeronauts.... Now my life has past and my time has
gone by.... Though my hair is white and my body too weak to
help you, I can still give you my advice, and you have my
hearty wishes for your future."

It was but shortly after this, on March 26, 1870, that Charles
Green passed away in the 85th year of his age.

De Fonvielle's colleague, M. Gaston Tissandier, was on one
occasion accidentally brought to visit the resting place of the
earliest among aeronauts, whose tragic death occurred while
Charles Green himself was yet a boy.  In a stormy and hazardous
descent Tissandier, under the guidance of M. Duruof, landed
with difficulty on the sea coast of France, when one of the
first to render help was a lightkeeper of the Griz-nez
lighthouse, who gave the information that on the other side of
the hills, a few hundred yards from the spot where they had
landed, was the tomb of Pilatre de Rozier, whose tragical death
has been recorded in an early chapter.  A visit to the actual
locality the next day revealed the fact that a humble stone
still marked the spot.

Certain scientific facts and memoranda collected by the
talented French aeronaut whom we are following are too
interesting to be omitted.  In the same journey to which we
have just referred the voyagers, when nearly over Calais, were
witnesses from their commanding standpoint of a very striking
phenomenon of mirage.  Looking in the direction of England, the
far coast line was hidden by an immense veil of leaden-coloured
cloud, and, following this cloud wall upward to detect where it
terminated, the travellers saw above it a greenish layer like
that of the surface of the sea, on which was detected a little
black point suggesting a walnut shell.  Fixing their eyes on
this black spot, they presently discerned it to be a ship
sailing upside down upon an aerial ocean.  Soon after, a
steamer blowing smoke, and then other vessels, added themselves
to the illusory spectacle.

Another wonder detected, equally striking though less uncommon,
was of an acoustical nature, the locality this time being over
Paris.  The height of the balloon at this moment was not great,
and, moreover, was diminishing as it settled down.  Suddenly
there broke in upon the voyagers a sound as of a confused kind
of murmur.  It was not unlike the distant breaking of waves
against a sandy coast, and scarcely less monotonous.  It was
the noise of Paris that reached them, as soon as they sank to
within 2,600 feet of the ground, but it disappeared at once
when they threw out just sufficient ballast to rise above that
altitude.

It might appear to many that so strange and sudden a shutting
out of a vast sound occurring abruptly in the free upper air
must have been more imaginary than real, yet the phenomenon is
almost precisely similar to one coming within the experience
the writer, and vouched for by his son and daughter, as also by
Mr. Percival Spencer, all of whom were joint observers at the
time, the main point of difference in the two cases being the
fact that the "region of silence" was recorded by the French
observers as occurring at a somewhat lower level.  In both
cases there is little doubt that the phenomenon can be referred
to a stratum of disturbed or non-homogeneous air, which may
have been very far spread, and which is capable of acting as a
most opaque sound barrier.

Attention has often been called in these pages to the fact that
the action of the sun on an inflated balloon, even when the
solar rays may be partially obscured and only operative for a
few passing moments, is to give sudden and great buoyancy to
the balloon.  An admirable opportunity for fairly estimating
the dynamic effect of the sun's rays on a silk globe, whose
fabric was half translucent, was offered to the French
aeronauts when their balloon was spread on the grass under
repair, and for this purpose inflated with the circumambient
air by means of a simple rotatory fan.  The sun coming out, the
interior of the globe quickly became suffocating, and it was
found that, while the external temperature recorded 77 degrees,
that of the interior was in excess of 91 degrees.



CHAPTER XVII. ADVENTURE AND ENTERPRISE.


A balloon which has become famous in history was frequently
used in the researches of the French aeronauts mentioned in our
last chapter.  This was known as "The Giant," the creation of
M. Nadar, a progressive and practical aeronaut, who had always
entertained ambitious ideas about aerial travel.

M. Nadar had been editor of L'Aeronaut, a French journal
devoted to the advancement of aerostation generally.  He had
also strongly expressed his own views respecting the
possibility of constructing air ships that should be subject to
control and guidance when winds were blowing.  His great
contention was that the dirigible air ship would, like a bird,
have to be made heavier than the medium in which it was to fly. 
As he put it, a balloon could never properly become a vessel. 
It would only be a buoy.  In spite of any number of
accessories, paddles, wings, fans, sails, it could not possibly
prevent the wind from bodily carrying away the whole concern.

After this strong expression of opinion, it may appear somewhat
strange that such a bold theoriser should at once have set
himself to construct the largest gas balloon on record.  Such,
however, was the case and the reason urged was not otherwise
than plausible.  For, seeing that a vast sum of money would be
needed to put his theories into practice, M. Nadar conceived
the idea of first constructing a balloon so unique and
unrivalled that it should compel public attention in a way that
no other balloon had done before, and so by popular exhibitions
bring to his hand such sums as he required.  A proper idea of
the scale of this huge machine can be easily gathered.  The
largest balloons at present exhibited in this country are
seldom much in excess of 50,000 cubic feet capacity.  Compared
with these the "Great Nassau Balloon," built by Charles Green,
which has been already sufficiently described, was a true
leviathan; while Coxwell's "Mammoth" was larger yet, possessing
a content, when fully inflated, of no less than 93,000 cubic
feet, and measuring over 55 feet in diameter.  This, however,
as will be seen, was but a mere pigmy when compared with "The
Giant," which, measuring some 74 feet in diameter, possessed
the prodigious capacity of 215,000 cubic feet.

But the huge craft possessed another novelty besides that of
exceptional size.  It was provided with a subsidiary balloon,
called the "Compensator," and properly the idea of M. L.
Godard, the function of which was to receive any expulsion of
gas in ascending, and thus to prevent loss during any voyage. 
The specification of this really remarkable structure may be
taken from M. Nadar's own description.  The globe in itself was
for greater strength virtually double, consisting of two
identical balloons, one within the other, each made of white
silk of the finest quality, and costing about 5s. 4d. per yard. 
No less than 22,000 yards of this silk were required, and the
sewing up of the gores was entirely done by hand.  The small
compensating balloon was constructed to have a capacity of
about 3,500 cubic feet, and the whole machine, when fully
inflated, was calculated to lift 4 1/2 tons.  With this
enormous margin of buoyancy, M. Nadar determined on making the
car of proportionate and unparalleled dimensions, and of most
elaborate design.  It contained two floors, of which the upper
one was open, the height of all being nearly 7 feet, with a
width of about 13 feet.  Then what was thought to be due
provision was made for possible emergencies.  It might descend
far from help or habitations, therefore means were provided for
attaching wheels and axles.  Again, the chance of rough impact
had to be considered, and so canes, to act as springs, were
fitted around and below.  Once again, there was the contingency
of immersion to be reckoned with; therefore there were provided
buoys and water-tight compartments.  Further than this, unusual
luxuries were added, for there were cabins, one for the captain
at one end, and another with three berths for passengers at the
other.  Nor was this all, for there was, in addition, a larder,
a lavatory, a photographic room, and a printing office.  It
remains now only to tell the tale of how this leviathan of the
air acquitted itself.

The first ascent was made on the 4th of October, 1853, from the
Champ de Mars, and no fewer than fifteen living souls were
launched together into the sky.  Of these Nadar was captain,
with the brothers Godard lieutenants.  There was the Prince de
Sayn-Wittgenstein; there was the Count de St. Martin; above
all, there was a lady, the Princess de la Tour d'Auvergne.  The
balloon came to earth at 9 o'clock at night near Meaux, and,
considering all the provision which had been made to guard
against rough landing, it can hardly be said that the descent
was a happy one.  It appears that the car dragged on its side
for nearly a mile, and the passengers, far from finding 
security in the seclusion of the inner chambers, were glad to
clamber out above and cling, as best they might, to the ropes.

Many of the party were bruised more or less severely, though no
one was seriously injured, and it was reported that such
fragile articles as crockery, cakes, confectionery, and wine
bottles to the number of no less than thirty-seven, were
afterwards discovered to be intact, and received due attention. 
It is further stated that the descent was decided on contrary
to the wishes of the captain, but in deference to the judgment
of the experienced MM. Godard, it being apparently their
conviction that the balloon was heading out to sea, whereas, in
reality, they were going due east, "with no sea at all before
them nearer than the Caspian."

This was certainly an unpropitious trial trip for the vessel
that had so ambitiously sought dominion over the air, and the
next trial, which was embarked upon a fortnight later, Sunday,
October 18th, was hardly less unfortunate.  Again the ascent
was from the Champ de Mars, and the send-off lacked nothing in
the way of splendour and circumstance.  The Emperor was
present, for two hours an interested observer of the
proceedings; the King of Greece also attended, and even entered
the car, while another famous spectator was the popular
Meyerbeer.  "The Giant" first gave a preliminary demonstration
of his power by taking up, for a cable's length, a living
freight of some thirty individuals, and then, at 5.10 p.m.,
started on its second free voyage, with nine souls on board,
among them again being a lady, in the person of Madame Nadar. 
For nearly twenty-four hours no tidings of the voyage were
forthcoming, when a telegram was received stating that the
balloon had passed over Compiegne, more than seventy miles from
Paris, at 8.30 on the previous evening, and that Nadar had
dropped the simple message, "All goes well!"  A later telegram
the same evening stated that the balloon had at midnight on
Sunday passed the Belgian frontier over Erquelines, where the
Custom House officials had challenged the travellers without
receiving an answer.

But eight-and-forty hours since the start went by without
further news, and excitement in Paris grew intense.  When the
news came at last it was from Bremen, to say that Nadar's
balloon had descended at Eystrup, Hanover, with five of the
passengers injured, three seriously.  These three were M.
Nadar, his wife, and M. St. Felix.  M. Nadar, in communicating
this intelligence, added, "We owe our lives to the courage of
Jules Godard."  The following signed testimony of M. Louis
Godard is forthcoming, and as it refers to an occasion which is
among the most thrilling in aerial adventure, it may well be
given without abridgment.  It is here transcribed almost
literatim from Mr. H. Turner's valuable work, "Astra Castra."

"The Giant," after passing Lisle, proceeded in the direction of
Belgium, where a fresh current, coming from the Channel, drove
it over the marshes of Holland.  It was there that M. Louis
Godard proposed to descend to await the break of day, in order
to recognise the situation and again to depart.  It was one in
the morning, the night was dark, but the weather calm. 
Unfortunately, this advice, supported by long experience, was
not listened to.  "The Giant" went on its way, and then Louis
Godard no longer considered himself responsible for the
consequences of the voyage.

The balloon coasted the Zuyder Zee, and then entered Hanover. 
The sun began to appear, drying  the netting and sides of the
balloon, wet from its  passage through the clouds, and produced
a dilatation which elevated the aeronauts to 15,000 feet.  At 
eight o'clock the wind, blowing suddenly from the  west, drove
the balloon in a right line towards the  North Sea.  It was
necessary, at all hazards, to  effect a descent.  This was a
perilous affair, as the  wind was blowing with extreme
violence.  The brothers Godard assisted, by M. Gabriel, opened
the valve and got out the anchors; but, unfortunately, the 
horizontal progress of the balloon augmented from second to
second.  The first obstacle which the anchors encountered was
a tree; it was instantly  uprooted, and dragged along to a
second obstacle, a house, whose roof was carried off.  At this
moment  the two cables of the anchors were broken without the
voyagers being aware of it.  Foreseeing the successive shocks
that were about to ensue--the moment was critical--the least
forgetfulness might cause death.  To add to the difficulty, the
balloon's inclined  position did not permit of operating the
valve, except on the hoop.

At the request of his brother, Jules Godard attempted the
difficult work of climbing to this hoop, and, in spite of his
known agility, he was obliged several times to renew the
effort.  Alone, and not being able to detach the cord, M. Louis
Godard begged M. Yon to join his brother on the hoop.  The two
made themselves masters of the rope, which they passed to Louis
Godard.  The latter secured it firmly, in spite of the shocks
he received.  A violent impact shook the car and M. de St.
Felix became entangled under the car as it was ploughing the
ground.  It was impossible to render him any assistance;
notwithstanding, Jules Godard, stimulated by his brother, leapt
out to attempt mooring the balloon to the trees by means of the
ropes.  M. Montgolfier, entangled in the same manner, was
re-seated in time and saved by Louis Godard.

At this moment others leapt out and escaped with a few
contusions.  The car, dragged along by the balloon, broke trees
more than half a yard in diameter and overthrew everything that
opposed it.

Louis Godard made M. Yon leap out of the car to assist Madame
Nadar; but a terrible shock threw out MM. Nadar, Louis Godard,
and Montgolfier, the two first against the ground, the third
into the water.  Madame Nadar, in spite of the efforts of the
voyagers, remained the last, and found herself squeezed between
the ground and the car, which had fallen upon her.  More than
twenty minutes elapsed before it was possible to disentangle
her, in spite of the most vigorous efforts on the part of
everyone.  It was at this moment the balloon burst and, like a
furious monster, destroyed everything around it.  Immediately
afterwards they ran to the assistance of M. de St. Felix, who
had been left behind, and whose face was one ghastly wound, and
covered with blood and mire.  He had an arm broken, his chest
grazed and bruised.

After this accident, though a creditable future lay in store
for "The Giant," its monstrous and unwieldy car was condemned,
and presently removed to the Crystal Palace, where it was daily
visited by large crowds.

It is impossible to dismiss this brief sketch of French
balloonists of this period without paying some due tribute to
M. Depuis Delcourt, equally well known in the literary and
scientific world, and regarded in his own country as a father
among aeronauts.  Born in 1802, his recollection went back to
the time of Montgolfier and Charles, to the feats of Garnerin,
and the death of Madame Blanchard.  He established the
Aerostatic and Meteorological Society of France, and was the
author of many works, as well as of a journal dealing with
aerial navigation.  He closed a life devoted to the pursuit and
advancement of aerostation in April, 1864.

Before very long, events began shaping themselves in the
political world which were destined to bring the balloon in
France into yet greater prominence.  But we should mention that
already its capabilities in time of war to meet the
requirements of military operations had been scientifically and
systematically tested, and of these trials it will be necessary
to speak without further delay.

Reference has already been made in these pages to a valuable
article contributed in 1862 by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E., to
the Royal Engineers' papers.  From this report it would appear
that the balloon, as a means of reconnoitring, was employed
with somewhat uncertain success at the battle of Solferino, the
brothers Godard being engaged as aeronauts.  The balloon used
was a Montgolfier, or fire balloon, and, in spite of its ready
inflation, MM. Godard considered it, from the difficulty of
maintaining within it the necessary degree of buoyancy, far
inferior to the gas inflated balloon.  On the other hand, the
Austrian Engineer Committee were of a contrary opinion.  It
would seem that no very definite conclusions had been arrived
at with respect to the use and value of the military balloon up
to the time of the commencement of the American War in 1862.

It was now that the practice of ballooning became a recognised
department of military manoeuvres, and a valuable report
appears in the above-mentioned papers from the pen of Captain
F. Beaumont, R.E.  According to this officer, the Americans
made trial of two different balloons, both hydrogen inflated,
one having a capacity of about 13,000 cubic feet, and the other
about twice as large.  It was this latter that the Americans
used almost exclusively, it being found to afford more
steadiness and safety, and to be the means, sometimes
desirable, of taking up more than two persons.  The difficulty
of sufficient gas supply seems to have been well met.  Two
generators sufficed, these being "nothing more than large tanks
of wood, acid-proof inside, and of sufficient strength to
resist the expansive action of the gas; they were provided with
suitable stopcocks for regulating the admission of the gas, and
with manhole covers for introducing the necessary materials."
The gas, as evolved, being made to pass successively through
two vessels containing lime water, was delivered cool and
purified into the balloon, and as the sulphuric acid needed for
the process was found sufficiently cheap, and scrap iron also
required was readily come by, it would seem that practical
difficulties in the field were reduced to a minimum.

According to Captain Beaumont, the difficulties which might
have been expected from windy weather were not considerable,
and twenty-five or thirty men sufficed to convey the balloon
easily, when inflated, over all obstacles. The transport of the
bulk of the rest of the apparatus does not read, on paper, a
very serious matter.  The two generators required four horses
each, and the acid and balloon carts as many more.  Arrived on
the scene of action, the drill itself was a simple matter.  A
squad of thirty men under an officer sufficed to get the
balloon into position, and to arrange the ballast so that, with
all in, there was a lifting power of some thirty pounds.  Then,
at the word of command, the men together drop the car, and
seize the three guy ropes, of which one is made to pass through
a snatch block firmly secured.  The guy ropes are then payed
out according to the directions of the aeronaut, as conveyed
through the officer.

The balloon accompanied the army's advance where its services
could be turned to the greatest advantage.  It was employed in
making continual ascents, and furnishing daily reports to
General M'Clellan, and it was supposed that by constant
observation the aeronaut could, at a glance, assure himself
that no change had taken place in the occupation of the
country.  Captain Beaumont, speaking, be it remembered, of the
military operations and manoeuvres then in vogue, declared that
earthworks could be seen even at the distance of eight miles,
though their character could not be distinctly stated.  Wooded
country was unfitted for balloon reconnaissance, and only in a
plain could any considerable body of troops be made known.  Then
follows such a description as one would be expecting to find:--

"During the battle of Hanover Court House, which was the first
engagement of importance before Richmond, I happened to be
close to the balloon when the heavy firing began.  The wind was
rather high; but I was anxious to see, if possible, what was
going on, and I went up with the father of the aeronaut.  The
balloon was, however, short of gas, and as the wind was high we
were obliged to come down.  I then went up by myself, the
diminished weight giving increased steadiness; but it was not
considered safe to go more than 500 feet, on account of the
unsettled state of the weather.  The balloon was very unsteady,
so much so that it was difficult to fix my sight on any
particular object.  At that distance I could see nothing of the
fight."

Following this is another significant sentence:--

"In the case of a siege, I am inclined to think that a balloon
reconnaissance would be of less value than in almost any other
case where a reconnaissance can be required; but, even here, if
useless, it is, at any rate, also harmless.  I once saw the
fire of artillery directed from the balloon; this became
necessary, as it was only in this way that the picket which it
was desired to dislodge could be seen.  However, I cannot say
that I thought the fire of artillery was of much effect against
the unseen object; not that this was the fault of the balloon,
for had it not told the artillerists which way the shots were
falling their fire would have been more useless still."

It will be observed that at this time photography had not been
adopted as an adjunct to military ballooning.

Full details have been given in this chapter of the monster
balloon constructed by M. Nadar; but in 1864 Eugene Godard
built one larger yet of the Montgolfier type.  Its capacity was
nearly half a million cubic feet, while the stove which
inflated it stood 18 feet high, and weighed nearly 1,000
pounds.  Two  free ascents were made without mishap from
Cremorne Gardens.  Five years later Ashburnham Park was the
scene of captive ascents made with another mammoth balloon,
containing no less than 350,000 cubic feet of pure hydrogen,
and capable of lifting 11 tons.  It was built at a cost of
28,000 francs by M. Giffard, the well-known engineer and
inventor of the injector for feeding steam engines.

These aerial leviathans do not appear to have been, in any true
sense successful.



CHAPTER XVIII. THE BALLOON IN THE SIEGE OF PARIS.


Within a few months of the completion of the period covered by
the records of the last chapter, France was destined to receive
a more urgent stimulus than ever before to develop the
resources of ballooning, and, in hot haste, to turn to the most
serious and practical account all the best resources of aerial
locomotion.  The stern necessity of war was upon her, and
during four months the sole mode of exit from Paris--nay, the
only possible means of conveying a simple message beyond the
boundary of her fortifications--was by balloon.

Hitherto, from the very inception of the art from the earliest
Montgolfier with its blazing furnace, the balloon had gone up
from the gay capital under every variety of circumstance--for
pleasure, for exhibition, for scientific research.  It was now
put in requisition to mitigate the emergency occasioned by the
long and close investment of the city by the Prussian forces.

Recognising, at an early stage, the possibilities of the
balloon, an enquiry was at once made by the military
authorities as to the existing resources of the city, when it
was quickly discovered that, with certain exceptions to be
presently mentioned, such balloons as were in existence within
the walls were either unserviceable or inadequate for the work
that was demanded of them.  Thereupon, with admirable
promptness and enterprise, it was forthwith determined to
organise the building and equipment of a regular fleet of
balloons of sufficient size and strength.

It chanced that there were in Paris at the time two
professional aeronauts of proved experience and skill, both of
whom had become well known in London only the season before in
connection with M. Giffard's huge captive balloon at Ashburnham
Park.  These were MM. Godard and Yon, and to them was entrusted
the establishment of two separate factories in spacious
buildings, which were at once available and admirably adapted
for the purpose.  These were at the Orleans and the Northern
Railway stations respectively, where spacious roofs and
abundant elbow room, the chief requisites, were to be found. 
The first-mentioned station was presided over Godard, the
latter by M. Yon, assisted by M. Dartois.

It was not doubted that the resources of the city would be able
to supply the large demand that would be made for suitable
material; but silk as a fabric was at once barred on the score
of expense alone.  A single journey was all that needed to be
calculated on for each craft, and thus calico would serve the
purpose, and would admit of speedy making up.  Slight
differences in manufacture were adopted at the two factories. 
At the Northern station plain white calico was used, sewn with
a sewing machine, whereas at the Orleans station the material
was coloured and entrusted only to hand stitching.  The
allimportant detail of varnish was supplied by a mixture of
linseed oil and the active principle of ordinary driers, and
this, laid on with a rubber, rendered the material gas-tight
and quickly dry enough for use.  Hundreds of hands, men and
women, were employed at the two factories, at which some sixty
balloons were produced before the end of the siege.  Much of
the more important work was entrusted to sailors, who showed
special aptness, not only in fitting out and rigging the
balloons, but also in their management when entrusted to the
winds.

It must have been an impressive sight for friend or foe to
witness the departure of each aerial vessel on its venturesome
mission.  The bold plunge into space above the roofs of the
imprisoned city; the rapid climb into the sky and, later, the
pearl drop high in air floating away to its uncertain and
hazardous haven, running the gauntlet of the enemy's fire by
day or braving what at first appeared to be equal danger,
attending the darkness of night.  It will be seen, however,
that, of the two evils, that of the darkness was considered the
less, even though, with strange and unreasonable excess of
caution, the aeronauts would not suffer the use of the
perfectly safe and almost indispensable Davy lamp.

Before any free ascents were ventured on, two old balloons were
put to some practical trial as stationary observatories.  One
of these was moored at Montmartre, the other at Mont-souris. 
From these centres daily, when the weather permitted, captive
ascents were made--four by day and two by night--to watch and
locate the movements of the enemy.  The system, as far as it
went, was well planned.  It was safe, and, to favour
expedition, messages were written in the car of the balloon and
slid down the cable to the attendants below.  The net result,
however, from a strategic point of view, does not appear to
have been of great value.

Ere yet the balloons were ready, certain bold and eventful
escapes were ventured on.  M. Duruof, already introduced in
these pages, trusting himself to the old craft, "Le Neptune,"
in unskyworthy condition, made a fast plunge into space, and,
catching the upper winds, was borne away for as long a period
as could be maintained at the cost of a prodigal expenditure of
ballast.  The balloon is said to have described a visible
parabola, like the trajectory of a projectile, and fell at
Evreux in safety and beyond the range of the enemy's fire,
though not far from their lines.  This was on the 23rd of
September.  Two days afterwards the first practical trial was
made with homing pigeons, with the idea of using them in
connection with balloons for the establishment of an officially
sanctioned post.  MM. Maugin and Grandchamp conducted this
voyage in the "Ville de Florence," and descended near
Vernouillet, not far beyond Le Foret de St. Germain, and less
than twenty miles from Paris.  The serviceability of the
pigeon, however, was clearly established, and a note
contributed by Mr. Glaisher, relating to the breeding and
choice of these birds, may be considered of interest.  Mr. R.
W. Aldridge, of Charlton, as quoted by Mr. Glaisher, stated
that his experience went to show that these birds can be
produced with different powers of orientation to meet the
requirements of particular cases.  "The bird required to make
journeys under fifty miles would materially differ in its
pedigree from one capable of flying 100 or 600 miles. 
Attention, in particular, must be given to the colour of the
eye; if wanted for broad daylight the bird known as the 'Pearl
Eye,' from its colour, should be selected; but if for foggy
weather or for twilight flying the black- or blue-eyed bird
should receive the preference."

Only a small minority, amounting to about sixty out of 360
birds taken up, returned to Paris, but these are calculated to
have conveyed among them some 100,000 messages.  To reduce
these pigeon messages to the smallest possible compass a method
of reduction by photography was employed with much success.  A
long letter might, in this way, be faithfully recorded on a
surface of thinnest photographic paper, not exceeding the
dimensions of a postage stamp, and, when received, no more was
necessary than to subject it to magnification, and then to
transcribe it and send a fair copy to the addressee.

The third voyage from Paris, on September 29th was undertaken
by Louis Godard in two small balloons, united together,
carrying both despatches and pigeons, and a safe landing was
effected at Mantes This successful feat was rival led the next
day by M. Tissandier, who ascended alone in a balloon of only
some 26,000 cubic feet capacity and reached earth at Dreux, in
Normandy.

These voyages exhausted the store of ready-made balloons, but
by a week later the first of those being specially manufactured
was ready, and conveyed in safety from the city no less a
personage than M. Gambetta.

The courageous resolve of the great man caused much sensation
in Paris, the more so because, owing to contrary winds, the
departure had to be postponed from day to day.  And when, at
length, on October 7th, Gambetta and his secretary, with the
aeronaut Trichet, actually got away, in company with another
balloon, they were vigorously fired at with shot and shell
before they had cleared St. Denis.  Farther out over the German
posts they were again under fire, and escaped by discharging
ballast, not, however, before Gambetta had been grazed by a
bullet.  Yet once more they were assailed by German volleys
before, about 3 p.m., they found a haven near Montdidier.

The usual dimensions of the new balloons gave a capacity of
70,000 cubic feet, and each of these, when inflated with coal
gas, was calculated to convey a freight of passengers, ballast,
and despatches amounting to some 2,000 pounds.  Their despatch
became frequent, sometimes two in the same twenty-four hours.
In less than a single week in October as many as four balloons
had fallen in Belgium, and as many more elsewhere.  Up till now
some sixteen ventures had ended well, but presently there came
trouble.  On October 22nd MM. Iglesia and Jouvencel fell at
Meaux, occupied by the Prussians; their despatches, however,
were saved in a dung cart.  The twenty-third  voyage ended more
unhappily.  On this occasion a sailor acted as aeronaut,
accompanied by an engineer, Etienne Antonin, and carrying
nearly 1,000 pounds of letters. It chanced that they descended
near Orleans on the very day when that town was re-occupied by
the enemy, and both voyagers were made prisoners. The engineer,
however, subsequently escaped.  Three days later another
sailor, also accompanied by an engineer, fell at the town of
Ferrieres, then occupied by the Prussians, when both were made
prisoners. In this case, also, the engineer succeeded in making
his escape; while the despatches were rescued by a forester and
forwarded in safety.

At about this date W. de Fonvielle, acting as aeronaut, and
taking passengers, made a successful escape, of which he has
given a graphic account.  He had been baulked by more than one
serious contretemps.  It had been determined that the departure
should be by night, and November 19th being fixed upon, the
balloon was in process of inflation under a gentle wind that
threatened a travel towards Prussian soil, when, as the moment
of departure approached, a large hole was accidentally made in
the fabric by the end of the metal pipe, and it was then too
late to effect repairs.  The next and following days the weather
was foul, and the departure was not effected till the 25th,
when he sailed away over the familiar but desolated country. 
He and his companions were fired at, but only when they were
well beyond range, and in less than two hours the party reached
Louvain, beyond Brussels, some 180 English miles in a direct
line from their starting point. This was the day after the
"Ville d'Orleans" balloon had made the record voyage and
distance of all the siege, falling in Norway, 600 miles north
of Christiania, after a flight of fifteen hours.

At the end of November, when over thirty escape voyages had
been made, two fatal disasters occurred.  A sailor of the name
of Prince ascended alone on a moonless night, and at dawn, away
on the north coast of Scotland, some fishermen sighted a
balloon in the sky dropping to the westward in the ocean.  The
only subsequent trace of this balloon was a bag of despatches
picked up in the Channel. Curiously enough, two days later
almost the same story was repeated.  Two aeronauts, this time
in charge of despatches and pigeons, were carried out to sea
and never traced.

Undeterred by these disasters, a notable escape was now
attempted.  An important total eclipse of the sun was to occur
in a track crossing southern Spain and Algeria on December
22nd.  An enthusiastic astronomer, Janssen, was commissioned by
the Academy of Sciences to attend and make observations of this
eclipse.  But M. Janssen was in Paris, as were also his
instruments, and the eclipse track lay nearly a thousand miles
away.  The one and only possible mode of fulfilling his
commission was to try the off-chance afforded by balloon, and
this chance he resorted to only twenty days before the eclipse
was due.

Taking with him the essential parts of a reflecting telescope,
and an active young sailor as assistant, he left Paris at 6
a.m. and rose at once to 3,600 feet, dipping again somewhat at
sunrise (owing, as he supposed, to loss of heat through
radiation), but subsequently ascending again rapidly under the
increased altitude of the sun till his balloon attained its
highest level of 7,200 feet.  From this elevation, shortly
after 11 a.m., he sighted the sea, when he commenced a descent
which brought him to earth at the mouth of the Loire.  It had
been fast travelling--some 300 miles in little more than three
hours--and the ground wind was strong.  Nevertheless, neither
passengers nor instruments were injured, and M. Janssen was
fully established by the day of eclipse on his observing ground
at Oran, on the Algerian coast.  It is distressing to add that
the phenomenon was hidden by cloud.  In the month that followed
this splendid venture no fewer than fifteen balloons escaped
from Paris, of which four fell into the hands of the enemy,
although for greater security all ascents were now being made
by night.

On January 13th, 1871, a new device for the return post was
tried, and, in addition to pigeons, sheep dogs were taken up,
with the idea of their being returned to the city with messages
concealed within their collars.  There is apparently no record
of any message having been returned to the town by this
ingenious method.  On January 24th a balloon, piloted by a
sailor, and containing a large freight of letters, fell within
the Prussian lines, but the patriotism of the country was
strong enough to secure the despatches being saved and
entrusted to the safe conveyance of the Post Office.  Then
followed the total loss of a balloon at sea; but this was
destined to be the last, save one, that was to attempt the
dangerous mission.  The next day, January 28th, the last
official balloon left the town, manned by a single sailor,
carrying but a small weight of despatches, but ordering the
ships to proceed to Dieppe for the revictualling of Paris.

Five additional balloons at that time in readiness were never
required for the risky service for which they were designed.

There can be little doubt that had the siege continued a more
elaborate use of balloons would have been developed. Schemes
were being mooted to attempt the vastly more difficult task of
conveying balloons into Paris from outside.  When hostilities
terminated there were actually six balloons in readiness for
this venture at Lisle, and waiting only for a northerly wind. 
M. de Fonvielle, possessed of both courage and experience, was
prepared to put in practice a method of guiding by a small
propelling force a balloon that was being carried by
sufficiently favouring winds within a few degrees of its
desired goal--and in the case of Paris the goal was an area of
some twenty miles in diameter.  Within the invested area
several attempts were actually made to control balloons by
methods of steering.  The names of Vert and Dupuy de Lome must
here be specially mentioned.  The former had elaborated an
invention which received much assistance, and was subsequently
exhibited at the Crystal Palace.  The latter received a grant
of L1,600 to perfect a complex machine, having within its gas
envelope an air chamber, suggested by the swimming bladder of a
fish, having also a sail helm and a propelling screw, to be
operated by manual labour.

The relation of this invention to others of similar purpose
will be further discussed later on.  But an actual trial of a
dirigible craft, the design of Admiral Labrousse, was made from
the Orleans railway station on January 9th. This machine
consisted of a balloon of about the standard capacity of the
siege balloons, namely some 70,000 cubic feet, fitted with two
screws of about 12 feet diameter, but capable of being readily
worked at moderate speed.  It was not a success.  M. Richard,
with three sailors, made a tentative ascent, and used their
best endeavours to control their vessel, but practically
without avail, and the machine presently coming to earth
clumsily, a portion of the gear caught in the ground and the
travellers were thrown over and roughly dragged for a long
distance.

Fairly looked at, the aerial post of the siege of Paris must be
regarded as an ambitious and, on the whole, successful
enterprise.  Some two million and a half of letters, amounting
in weight to some ten tons, were conveyed through the four
months, in addition to which at least an equal weight of other
freight was taken up, exclusive of actual passengers, of whom
no fewer than two hundred were transported from the beleaguered
city.  Of these only one returned, seven or eight were drowned,
twice this number were taken prisoners, and as many again more
or less injured in descents.  From a purely financial point of
view the undertaking was no failure, as the cost, great as it
necessarily became, was, it is said, fairly covered by the
postage, which it was possible and by no means unreasonable to
levy.  The  recognised tariff seems to have been 20 centimes
for 4 grammes, or at the rate of not greatly more than a
shilling per English ounce.  Surely hardly on a par with famein
prices in a time of siege.

It has already been stated that the defenders of Paris did not
derive substantial assistance from the services of such a
reconnoitring balloon as is generally used in warfare at every
available opportunity.  It is possible that the peculiar
circumstances of the investment of the town rendered such
reconnaissance of comparatively small value.  But, at any rate,
it seems clear that due opportunity was not given to this
strategic method.  M. Giffard, who at the commencement of the
siege was in Paris, and whose experience with a captive balloon
was second to none, made early overtures to the Government,
offering to build for L40,000 a suitable balloon, capable of
raising forty persons to a heightm of 3,000 feet.  Forty aerial
scouts, it may be said, are hardly needed for purposes of
outlook at one time; but it appears that this was not the
consideration which stood in the way of M. Giffard's offer being
accepted.  According to M. de Fonvielle, the Government refused
the experienced aeronaut's proposal on the ground that he
required a place in the Champs Elysees, "which it would be
necessary to clear of a few shrubs"!



CHAPTER XIX. THE TRAGEDY OF THE ZENITH."--THE NAVIGABLE BALLOON


The mechanical air ship had, by this time, as may be inferred,
begun seriously to occupy the attention of both theoretical and
practical aeronauts.  One of the earliest machines deserving of
special mention was designed by M. Giffard, and consisted of an
elongated balloon, 104 feet in length and 39 feet in greatest
diameter, furnished with a triangular rudder, and a steam
engine operating a screw.  The fire of the engine, which burned
coke, was skilfully protected, and the fuel and water required
were taken into calculation as so much ballast to be gradually
expended.  In this vessel, inflated only with coal gas, and
somewhat unmanageable and difficult to balance, the
enthusiastic inventor ascended alone from the Hippodrome and
executed sundry desired movements, not unsuccessfully.  But the
trial was not of long duration, and the descent proved both
rapid and perilous.  Had the trial been made in such a perfect
calm as that which prevailed when certain subsequent inventions
were tested, it was considered that M. Giffard's vessel would
have been as navigable as a boat in the water.  This unrivalled
mechanician, after having made great advances in the direction
of high speed engines of sufficient lightness, proceeded to
design a vastly improved dirigible balloon, when his endeavours
were frustrated by blindness.

As has been already stated, M. Dupuy de Lome, at the end of the
siege of Paris, was engaged in building a navigable balloon,
which, owing to the unsettled state of affairs in France, did
not receive its trial till two years later.  This balloon, which
was inflated with pure hydrogen, was of greater capacity than
that of M. Giffard, being cigar shaped and measuring 118 feet
by 48 feet.  It was also provided with an ingenious arrangement
consisting of an internal air bag, capable of being either
inflated or discharged, for the purpose of keeping the
principal envelope always distended, and thus offering the
least possible resistance to the wind.  The propelling power
was the manual labour of eight men working the screw, and the
steerage was provided for by a triangular rudder.  The trial,
which was carried out without mishap, took place in February,
1872, in the Fort of Vincennes, under the personal direction of
the inventor, when it was found that the vessel readily obeyed
the helm, and was capable of a speed exceeding six miles an
hour.

It was not till nine years after this that the next important
trial with air ships was made.  The brothers Tissandier will
then be found taking the lead, and an appalling incident in the
aeronautical career of one of these has now to be recorded.

In the spring of 1875, and with the co-operation of French
scientific societies, it was determined to make two
experimental voyages in a balloon called the "Zenith," one of
these to be of long duration, the other of great height.  The
first of these had been successfully accomplished in a flight
of twenty-four hours' duration from Paris to Bordeaux.  It was
now April the 15th, and the lofty flight was embarked upon by
M. Gaston Tissandier, accompanied by MM. Croce-Spinelli and
Sivel.  Under competent advice, provision for respiration on
emergency was provided in three small balloons, filled with a
mixture of air and oxygen, and fitted with indiarubber hose
pipes, which would allow the mixture, when inhaled, to pass
first through a wash bottle containing aromatic fluid.  The
experiments determined on included an analysis of the
proportion of carbonic acid gas at different heights by means
of special apparatus; spectroscopic observations, and the
readings registered by certain barometers and thermometers. A
novel and valuable experiment, also arranged, was that of
testing the internal temperature of the balloon as compared
with that of the external air.

Ascending at 11.30 a.m. under a warm sun, the balloon had by 1
p.m. reached an altitude of 16,000 feet, when the external air
was at freezing point, the gas high in the balloon being 72
degrees, and at the centre 66 degrees.  Ere this height had
been fully reached, however, the voyagers had begun to breathe
oxygen.  At 11.57, an hour previously, Spinelli had written in
his notebook, "Slight pain in the ears--somewhat oppressed--it
is the gas."  At 23,000 feet Sivel wrote in his notebook, "I am
inhaling oxygen--the effect is excellent," after which he
proceeded to urge the balloon higher by a discharge of ballast. 
The rest of the terrible narrative has now to be taken from the
notes of M. Tissandier, and as these constitute one of the most
thrilling narratives in aeronautical records we transcribe them
nearly in full, as given by Mr. Glaisher:--

"At 23,000 feet we were standing up in the car.  Sivel, who had
given up for a moment, is re-invigorated.  Croce-Spinelli is
motionless in front of me.... I felt stupefied and frozen.  I
wished to put on my fur gloves, but, without being conscious of
it, the action of taking them from my pocket necessitated an
effort that I could no longer make.... I copy, verbatim, the
following lines which were written by me, although I have no
very distinct remembrance of doing so.  They are traced in a
hardly legible manner by a hand trembling with cold:  'My hands
are frozen.  I am all right.  We are all all right.  Fog in the
horizon, with little rounded cirrus.  We are ascending.  Croce
pants; he inhales oxygen.  Sivel closes his eyes.  Croce also
closes his eyes.... Sivel throws out ballast'--these last words
are hardly readable.  Sivel seized his knife and cut
successively three cords, and the three bags emptied themselves
and we ascended rapidly.  The last remembrance of this ascent
which remains clear to me relates to a moment earlier. 
Croce-Spinelli was seated, holding in one hand a wash bottle of
oxygen gas.  His head was slightly inclined and he seemed
oppressed.  I had still strength to tap the aneroid barometer
to facilitate the movement of the needle.  Sivel had just
raised his hand towards the sky.  As for myself, I remained
perfectly still, without suspecting that I had, perhaps,
already lost the power of moving.  About the height of 25,000
feet the condition of stupefaction which ensues is
extraordinary.  The mind and body weaken by degrees, and
imperceptibly, without consciousness of it.  No suffering is
then experienced; on the contrary, an inner joy is felt like an
irradiation from the surrounding flood of light.   One becomes
indifferent.  One thinks no more of the perilous position or of
danger.  One ascends, and is happy to ascend.   The vertigo of
the upper regions is not an idle word; but, so far as I can
judge from my personal impression, vertigo appears at the last
moment; it immediately precedes annihilation, sudden,
unexpected, and irresistible.

"When Sivel cut away the bags of ballast at the height of about
24,000 feet, I seemed to remember that he was sitting at the
bottom of the car, and nearly in the same position as
Croce-Spinelli.  For my part, I was in the angle of the car,
thanks to which support I was able to hold up; but I soon felt
too weak even to turn my head to look at my companions.  Soon I
wished to take hold of the tube of oxygen, but it was
impossible to raise my arm.  My mind, nevertheless, was quite
clear.  I wished to explain, 'We are 8,000 metres high'; but my
tongue was, as it were, paralysed.  All at once I closed my
eyes, and, sinking down inert, became insensible.  This was
about 1.30 p.m.  At 2.8 p.m. I awoke for a moment, and found
the balloon rapidly descending.  I was able to cut away a bag
of ballast to check the speed and write in my notebook the
following lines, which I copy:

" 'We are descending.  Temperature, 3 degrees.  I throw out
ballast.  Barometer, 12.4 inches.  We are descending.  Sivel
and Croce still in a fainting state at the bottom of the car. 
Descending very rapidly.'

"Hardly had I written these lines when a kind of trembling
seized me, and I fell back weakened again.  There was a violent
wind from below, upwards, denoting a very rapid descent.  After
some minutes I felt myself shaken by the arm, and I recognised
Croce, who had revived.  'Throw out ballast,' he said to me,
'we are descending '; but I could hardly open my eyes, and did
not see whether Sivel was awake.  I called to mind that Croce
unfastened the aspirator, which he then threw overboard, and
then he threw out ballast, rugs, etc.

"All this is an extremely confused remembrance, quickly
extinguished, for again I fell back inert more completely than
before, and it seemed to me that I was dying.  What happened?
It is certain that the balloon, relieved of a great weight of
ballast, at once ascended to the higher regions.

"At 3.30 p.m. I opened my eyes again.  I felt dreadfully giddy
and oppressed, but gradually came to myself.  The balloon was
descending with frightful speed and making great oscillations. 
I crept along on my knees, and I pulled Sivel and Croce by the
arm.  'Sivel! Croce!' I exclaimed, 'Wake up!'  My two
companions were huddled up motionless in the car, covered by
their cloaks. I collected all my strength, and endeavoured to
raise them up.  Sivel's face was black, his eyes dull, and his
mouth was open and full of blood.  Croce's eyes were half
closed and his mouth was bloody.

"To relate what happened afterwards is quite impossible.  I
felt a frightful wind; we were still 9,700 feet high.  There
remained in the car two bags of ballast, which I threw out.  I
was drawing near the earth.  I looked for my knife to cut the
small rope which held the anchor, but could not find it.  I was
like a madman, and continued to call 'Sivel! Sivel!'  By good
fortune I was able to put my hand upon my knife and detach the
anchor at the right moment.  The shock on coming to the ground
was dreadful. The balloon seemed as if it were being flattened. 
I thought it was going to remain where it had fallen, but the
wind was high, and it was dragged across fields, the anchor not
catching.  The bodies of my unfortunate friends were shaken
about in the car, and I thought every moment they would be
jerked out.  At length, however, I seized the valve line, and
the gas soon escaped from the balloon, which lodged against a
tree.  It was then four o'clock.  On stepping out, I was seized
with a feverish attack, and sank down and thought for a moment
that I was going to join my friends in the next world; but I
came to.  I found the bodies of my friends cold and stiff.  I
had them put under shelter in an adjacent barn.  The descent of
the 'Zenith' took place in the plains 155 miles from Paris as
the crow flies.  The greatest height attained in this ascent is
estimated at 28,000 feet."

It was in 1884 that the brothers Tissandier commenced
experiments with a screw-propelled air ship resembling in shape
those constructed by Giffard and Dupuy de Lome, but smaller,
measuring only 91 feet by 30 feet, and operated by an electric
motor placed in circuit with a powerful battery of bichromate
cells.  Two trials were made with this vessel in October, 1883,
and again in the following September, when it proved itself
capable of holding its course in calm air and of being readily
controlled by the rudder.

But, ere this, a number of somewhat similar experiments, on
behalf of the French Government, had been entered upon by
Captains Renard and Krebs at Chalais-Meudon.  Their balloon may
be described as fish-shaped, 165 feet long, and 27.5 feet in
principal diameter. It was operated by an electric motor, which
was capable of driving a screw of large dimensions at
forty-eight revolutions per minute.  At its first trial, in
August, 1884, in dead calm, it attained a velocity of over
twelve miles per hour, travelling some two and a half miles in
a forward direction, when, by application of the rudder and
judicious management, it was manoeuvred homewards, and
practically brought to earth at the point of departure.

A more important trial was made on the 12th of the following
month, and was witnessed by M. Tissandier, according to whom
the aerostat conveying the inventors ascended gently and
steadily, drifting with an appreciable breeze until the screw
was set in motion and the helm put down, when the vessel was
brought round to the wind and held its own until the motor, by
an accident, ceased working.  A little later the same air ship
met with more signal success.  On one occasion, starting from
ChalaisMeudon, it took a direct course to the N.E., crossing
the railway and the Seine, where the aeronauts, stopping the
screw, ascertained the velocity of the wind to be approximately
five miles an hour.  The screw being again put in motion, the
balloon was steered to the right, and, following a path
parallel to its first, returned to its point of departure.
Starting again the same afternoon, it was caused to perform a
variety of aerial evolutions, and after thirty-five minutes
returned once more to its starting place.

A tabular comparison of the four navigable balloons which we
have now described has been given as follows:--

Date.    Name.             Motor.           Vel. p. Sec.
1852  M. Henri Giffard    Steam engine     13.12 ft.
1872  M. Dupuy de Lome    Muscular force    9.18 ft.
1883  MM. Tissandier      Electric motor    9.84 ft.
1884  MM. Renard & Krebs  Electric motor   18.04 ft.

About this period, that is in 1883, and really prior to the
Meudon experiments, there were other attempts at aerial
locomotion not to be altogether passed over, which were made
also in France, but financed by English money.  The experiments
were performed by Mr. F. A. Gower, who, writing to Professor
Tyndall, claims to have succeeded in "driving a large balloon
fairly against the wind by steam power."  A melancholy interest
will always belong to these trials from the fact that Mr. Gower
was subsequently blown out to sea with his balloon, leaving no
trace behind.

At this stage it will be well to glance at some of the more
important theories which were being mooted as to the
possibility of aerial locomotion properly so called.  Broadly,
there were two rival schools at this time.  We will call them
the "lighter-than-air-ites" and the "heavier-than-air-ites,"
respectively.  The former were the advocates of the air vessel
of which the balloon is a type.  The latter school maintained
that, as birds are heavier than air, so the air locomotive of
the future would be a machine itself heavier than air, but
capable of being navigated by a motor yet to be discovered,
which would develop proportionate power.  Sir H. Maxim's words
may be aptly quoted here.  "In all Nature," he says, "we do not
find a single balloon.  All Nature's flying machines are
heavier than the air, and depend altogether upon the
development of dynamic energy."

The faculty of soaring, possessed by many birds, of which the
albatross may be considered a type, led to numerous
speculations as to what would constitute the ideal principle of
the air motor.  Sir G. Cayley, as far back as 1809, wrote a
classical article on this subject, without, however, adding
much to its elucidation.  Others after his time conceived that
the bird, by sheer habit and practice, could perform, as it
were, a trick in balancing by making use of the complex air
streams varying in speed and direction that were supposed to
intermingle above.

Mr. R. A. Proctor discusses the matter with his usual
clear-sightedness.  He premises that the bird may, in actual
fact, only poise itself for some ten minutes--an interval which
many will consider far too small--without flap of the wings,
and, while contending that the problem must be simply a
mechanical one, is ready to admit that "the sustaining power of
the air on bodies of a particular form travelling swiftly
through it may be much greater or very different in character
from what is supposed."  In his opinion, it is a fact that a
flat body travelling swiftly and horizontally will sink towards
the ground much more slowly than a similar body moving
similarly but with less speed.  In proof of this he gives the
homely illustration of a flat stone caused to make " ducks and
drakes."  Thus he contends that the bird accomplishes its
floating feat simply by occasional powerful propulsive efforts,
combined with perfect balance.  From which he deduces the
corollary that "if ever the art of flying, or rather of making
flying machines, is attained by man, it will be by combining
rapid motion with the power of perfect balancing."

It will now appear as a natural and certain consequence that a
feature to be introduced by experimentalists into flying
machines should be the "Aeroplane," or, in other words, a plane
which, at a desired angle, should be driven at speed through
the air.  Most notable attempts with this expedient were now
shortly made by Hiram Maxim, Langley, and others.

But, contemporaneously with these attempts, certain feats with
the rival aerostat--the balloon--were accomplished, which will
be most fittingly told in this place.



CHAPTER XX.  A CHAPTER OF ACCIDENTS.


It will have been gathered from what has been already stated
that the balloonist is commonly in much uncertainty as to his
precise course when he is above the clouds, or when unable from
darkness to see the earth beneath him.  With a view of
overcoming this disadvantage some original experiments were
suggested by a distinguished officer, who during the seventies
had begun to interest himself in aeronautics.

This was Captain Burnaby. His method was to employ two small
silk parachutes, which, if required, might carry burning
magnesium wires, and which were to be attached to each other by
a length of silk thread.  On dropping one parachute, it would
first partake of the motion of the balloon, but would presently
drop below, when the second parachute would be dismissed, and
then an imaginary line drawn between the two bodies was
supposed to betray the balloon's course.  It should be
mentioned, however, that if a careful study is made of the
course of many descending parachutes it will be found that
their behaviour is too uncertain to be relied upon for such a
purpose as the above.  They will often float behind the
balloon's wake, but sometimes again will be found in front, and
sometimes striking off in some side direction, so wayward and
complex are the currents which control such small bodies.  Mr.
Glaisher has stated that a balloon's course above the clouds
may be detected by observing the grapnel, supposed to be
hanging below the car, as this would be seen to be out of the
vertical as the balloon drifted, and thus serve to indicate the
course.  However this may be, the most experienced sky sailors
will be found to be in perplexity as to their direction, as
also their speed, when view of the earth is obscured.

But Captain Burnaby is associated notably with the adventurous
side of ballooning, the most famous of his aerial exploits
being, perhaps, that of crossing the English Channel alone from
Dover on March 23rd, 1882.  Outwardly, he made presence of
sailing to Paris by sky to dine there that evening; inwardly,
he had determined to start simply with a wind which bid fair
for a cross-Channel trip, and to take whatever chances it might
bring him.

Thus, at 10.30 a.m., just as the mail packet left the pier, he
cast off with a lifting power which rapidly carried him to a
height of 2,000 feet, when he found his course to be towards
Folkestone.  But by shortly after 11 o'clock he had decided
that he was changing his direction, and when, as he judged,
some seven miles from Boulogne, the wind was carrying him not
across, but down the Channel.  Then, for nearly four hours, the
balloon shifted about with no improvement in the outlook, after
which the wind fell calm, and the balloon remained motionless
at 2,000 feet above the sea.  This state of things continuing
for an hour, the Captain resolved on the heroic expedient of
casting out all his ballast and philosophically abiding the
issue.  The manoeuvre turned out a happy one, for the balloon,
shooting up to 11,000 feet, caught a current, on which it was
rapidly carried towards and over the main land; and, when twelve
miles beyond Dieppe, it became easy to descend to a lower level
by manipulation of the valve, and finally to make a successful
landing in open country beyond.

A few years before, an attempt to cross the Channel from the
other side ended far more disastrously.  Jules  Duruof, already
mentioned as having piloted the first runaway balloon from
beleaguered Paris, had determined on an attempt to cross over
to England from Calais; and, duly advertising the event, a
large concourse assembled on the day announced, clamouring
loudly for the ascent.  But the wind proved unsuitable, setting
out over the North Sea, and the mayor thought fit to interfere,
and had the car removed so as to prevent proceedings. On this
the crowd grew impatient, and Duruof, determining to keep faith
with them, succeeded by an artifice in regaining his car, which
he hastily carried back to the balloon, and immediately taking
his seat, and accompanied by his wife, the intrepid pair
commenced their bold flight just as the shades of evening were
settling down.  Shortly the balloon disappeared into the
gathering darkness, and then for three days Calais knew no more
of balloon or balloonists.

Neither could the voyagers see aught for certain of their own
course, and thus through the long night hours their attention
was wholly needed, without chance of sleep, in closely watching
their situation, lest unawares they should be borne down on the
waves.  When morning broke they discovered that they were still
being carried out over the sea on a furious gale, being
apparently off the Danish coast, with the distant mountains of
Norway dimly visible on the starboard bow.  It was at this
point, and possibly owing to the chill commonly experienced
aloft soon after dawn, that the balloon suddenly took a
downward course and plunged into the sea, happily,
however,fairly in the track of vessels.  Presently a ship came
in sight, but cruelly kept on its course, leaving the castaways
in despair, with their car fast succumbing to the waves.

Help, nevertheless, was really at hand.  The captain of an
English fishing smack, the Grand Charge, had sighted the
sinking balloon, and was already bearing down to the rescue. 
It is said that when, at length, a boat came alongside as near
as it was possible, Madame Duruof was unable to make the
necessary effort to jump on board, and her husband had to throw
her into the arms of the sailors.  A fitting sequel to the
story comes from Paris, where the heroic couple, after a
sojourn in England, were given a splendid reception and a purse
of money, with which M. Duruof forthwith constructed a new
balloon, named the "Ville de Calais."

On the 4th of March, 1882, the ardent amateur balloonist, Mr.
Simmons, had a narrow escape in circumstances somewhat similar
to the above.  He was attempting, in company with Colonel
Brine, to cross the Channel from Canterbury, when a change of
wind carried them out towards the North Sea.  Falling in the
water, they abandoned their balloon, but were rescued by the
mail packet Foam.

The same amateur aeronaut met with an exciting experience not
long after, when in company with Sir Claude C. de Crespigny.
The two adventurers left Maldon, in Essex, at 11 p.m., on an
August night, and, sailing at a great height out to sea, lost
all sight of land till 6 a.m. the next morning, when, at 17,000
feet altitude, they sighted the opposite coast and descended in
safety near Flushing.

Yet another adventure at sea, and one which proved fatal and
unspeakably regrettable, occurred about this time, namely, on
the 10th of December, 1881, when Captain Templer, Mr. W.
Powell, M.P., and Mr. Agg-Gardner ascended from Bath.  We
prefer to give the account as it appears in a leading article
in the Times for December 13th of that year.

After sailing over Glastonbury, "Crewkerne was presently
sighted, then Beaminster.  The roar of the sea gave the next
indication of the locality to which the balloon had drifted and
the first hint of the possible perils of the voyage.  A descent
was now effected to within a few hundred feet of earth, and an
endeavour was made to ascertain the exact position they had
reached.  The course taken by the balloon between Beaminster
and the sea is not stated in Captain Templer's letter.  The
wind, as far as we can gather, must have shifted, or different
currents of air must have been found at the different
altitudes.  What Captain Templer says is that they coasted
along to Symonsbury, passing, it would seem, in an easterly
direction and keeping still very near to the earth.  Soon after
they had left Symonsbury, Captain Templer shouted to a man
below to tell them how far they were from Bridport, and he
received for answer that Bridport was about a mile off.  The
pace at which the balloon was moving had now increased to
thirty-five miles an hour.  The sea was dangerously close, and
a few minutes in a southerly current of air would have been
enough to carry them over it.  They seem, however, to have been
confident in their own powers of management.  They threw out
ballast, and rose to a height of 1,500 feet, and thence came
down again only just in time, touching the ground at a distance
of about 150 yards from the cliff.  The balloon here dragged
for a few feet, and Captain Templer, who had been letting off
the gas, rolled out of the car, still holding the valve line in
his hand.  This was the last chance of a safe escape for
anybody.  The balloon, with its weight lightened, went up about
eight feet.  Mr. Agg-Gardner dropped out and broke his leg. 
Mr. Powell now remained as the sole occupant of the car. 
Captain Templer, who had still hold of the rope, shouted to Mr.
Powell to come down the line.  This he attempted to do, but in
a few seconds, and before he could commence his perilous
descent, the line was torn out of Captain Templer's hands.  All
communication with the earth was cut off, and the balloon rose
rapidly, taking Mr. Powell with it in a south-easterly
direction out to sea."

It was a few seasons previous to this, namely, on the 8th of
July, 1874, when Mr. Simmons was concerned in a balloon
fatality of a peculiarly distressing nature.  A Belgian,
Vincent de Groof, styling himself the "Flying Man," announced
his intention of descending in a parachute from a balloon
piloted by Mr. Simmons, who was to start from Cremorne Gardens. 
The balloon duly ascended, with De Groof in his machine
suspended below, and when over St. Luke's Church, and at a
height estimated at 80 feet, it is thought that the unfortunate
man overbalanced himself after detaching his apparatus, and
fell forward, clinging to the ropes.  The machine failed to
open, and De Groof was precipitated into Robert Street,
Chelsea, expiring almost immediately.  The porter of Chelsea
Infirmary, who was watching the balloon, asserted that he
fancied the falling man called out twice, "Drop into the
churchyard; look out!"  Mr. Simmons, shooting upwards in his
balloon, thus suddenly lightened, to a great height, became
insensible, and when he recovered consciousness found himself
over Victoria Park.  He made a descent, without mishap, on a
line of railway in Essex.

On the 19th of August, 1887, occurred an important total
eclipse of the sun, the track of which lay across Germany,
Russia, Western Siberia, and Japan.  At all suitable stations
along the shadow track astronomers from all parts of the world
established themselves; but at many eclipses observers had had
bad fortune owing to the phenomenon at the critical moment
being obscured.  And on this account one astronomer determined
on measures which should render his chances of a clear view a
practical certainty.  Professor Mendeleef, in Russia, resolved
to engage a balloon, and by rising above the cloud barrier,
should there be one, to have the eclipse all to himself.  It
was an example of fine enthusiasm, which, moreover, was
presently put to a severe and unexpected test, for the balloon,
when inflated, proved unable to take up both the aeronaut and
the astronomer, whereupon the latter, though wholly
inexperienced, had no alternative but to ascend alone, which,
either by accident or choice, he actually did.  Shooting up
into space, he soon reached an altitude of 11,500 feet, where
he obtained, even if he did not enjoy, an unobstructed view of
the Corona.  It may be supposed, however, that, owing to the
novelty of his situation, his scientific observations may not
have been so complete as they would have been on terra firma.

In the same month an attempt to reach a record height was made
by MM. Jovis and Mallet at Paris, with the net result that an
elevation of 23,000 feet was reached.  It will have been noted
that the difficulty through physical exhaustion of inhaling
oxygen from either a bag or cylinder is a serious matter not
easily overcome, and it has been suggested that the helmet
invented by M. Fleuss might prove of value.  This contrivance,
which has scarcely attracted the attention it has merited,
provides a receptacle for respiration, containing oxygen and
certain purifying media, by means of which the inventor was
able to remain for hours under water without any communication
with the outward air.

About the period at which we have now arrived two fatal
accidents befel English aeronauts.  We have related how Maldon,
in Essex, was associated with one of the more adventurous
exploits in Mr. Simmons's career.  It was fated also to be
associated with the voyage with which his career closed.  On
August 27th, 1888, he ascended from Olympia in company with Mr.
Field, of West Brighton, and Mr. Myers, of the Natural History
Museum, with the intention, if practicable, of crossing to
Flanders; and the voyage proceeded happily until the
neighbourhood of Maldon was reached, when, as the sea coast was
in sight, and it was already past five o'clock, it appeared
prudent to Mr. Simmons to descend and moor the balloon for the
night.  Some labourers some three miles from Maldon sighted the
balloon coming up at speed, and at the same time descending
until its grapnel commenced tearing through a field of barley,
when ballast was thrown out, causing the balloon to rise again
towards and over some tall elms, which became the cause of the
disaster which followed.  The grapnel, catching in the upper
boughs of one of these trees, held fast, while the balloon,
borne by the force of a strong wind, was repeatedly blown down
to earth with violence, rebounding each time to a considerable
height, only to be flung down again on the same spot.  After
three or four impacts the balloon is reported to have burst
with a loud noise, when high in the air, the silk being blown
about over the field, and the car and its occupants dashed to
the ground.  Help was unavailing till this final catastrophe,
and when, at length, the labourers were able to extricate the
party, Mr. Simmons was found with a fractured skull and both
companions badly injured.

Four summers later, June 30th, 1892, Captain Dale, the aeronaut
to the Crystal Palace, was announced to make an ascent from the
usual balloon grounds, weather permitting.  Through the night
and morning a violent storm prevailed, and it was contemplated
that the exhibition would be withdrawn; but the wind abating in
the afternoon, the inflation was proceeded with, and the ascent
took place shortly before 6 p.m., not, however, before a large
rent had been discovered and repaired as far as possible by
Mrs. Dale.  As passengers, there ascended the Captain's son
William, aged nineteen, Mr. J. Macintosh, and Mr. Cecil
Shadbolt.  When the balloon had reached an altitude estimated
at 600 feet the onlookers were horrified to see it suddenly
collapse, a large rent having developed near the top part of
the silk, from which the gas "rushed out in a dense mass,
allowing the balloon to fall like a rag."  The occupants of the
car were seen to be throwing out everything madly, even
wrenching the buttons from their clothing.  All, however, with
little avail, for the balloon fell "with a sickening thud,"
midway between the Maze and lower lake.  All were found alive;
but Captain Dale, who had alighted on his back, died in a few
minutes; Mr. Shadbolt succumbed later, and both remaining
passengers sustained terrible injuries.

Few balloon mishaps, unattended with fatal results, have proved
more exciting than the following.  A large party had ascended
from Belfast, in a monster balloon, under the guidance of Mr.
Coxwell, on a day which was very unfit for the purpose by
reason of stormy weather.  A more serious trouble than the
wind, however, lay in several of the passengers themselves, who
seem to have been highly excitable Irishmen, incapable at the
critical moment of quietly obeying orders

The principal hero of the story, a German.  Mr. Runge, in
writing afterwards to the Ulster Observer, entirely exonerates
Mr. Coxwell from any blame, attributing his mischances solely
to the reprehensible conduct of his companions.  On approaching
the ground, Mr. Coxwell gave clear instructions.  The
passengers were to sit down in an unconstrained position facing
each other, and be prepared for some heavy shocks.  Above all
things they were to be careful to get out one by one, and on no
account to leave hold of the car.  Many of the passengers,
however, refused to sit down, and, according to Mr. Runge,
"behaved in the wildest manner, losing completely their
self-control. Seizing the valve rope themselves, they tore it
away from its attachment, the stronger pushing back the weaker,
and refusing to lend help when they had got out.  In
consequence of this the car, relieved of their weight, tore
away from the grasp of Mr. Coxwell and those who still clung to
it, and rose above the trees, with Mr. Runge and one other
passenger, Mr. Halferty, alone within.  As the balloon came
earthwards again, they shouted to the countrymen for succour,
but without the slightest avail, and presently, the anchor
catching, the car struck the earth with a shock which threw Mr.
Halferty out on the ground, leaving Mr. Runge to rise again
into the air, this time alone."  He thus continues the story:--

"The balloon moved on, very soon, in a horizontal direction
straight towards the sea, which we were then rapidly nearing. 
Coming to a farm, I shouted out to the people standing there. 
Some women, with their quick humane instincts, were the first
to perceive my danger, and exhorted the men to hurry to my
assistance, they themselves running as fast as they could to
tender what little help they might be able to give me.  The
anchor stuck in a willow tree.  I shouted out to the people
below to secure the cable and anchor by ropes, which they did. 
The evening was now beautifully still, the breeze had died
away, and the balloon was swinging calmly at her moorings above
the farmhouse.  One of the men asked me whether I had a rope
with me, and how I intended to get out.  I told them only to
take care of the cable, because the balloon would settle down
by herself before long.  I was congratulating myself on a
speedy escape from my dangerous position.  I had not counted on
the wind.  A breeze in about six or eight minutes sprang up,
tossed the balloon about like a large sail, then a crash,
and--the anchor was loose again.  It tore through the trees,
flinging limbs and branches about like matches.  It struck the
roof of the farmhouse, splintering the chimneys and tiles like
glass.

"On I went; I came near another farm; shouted out for help, and
told the men to secure the anchor to the foot of a large tree
close by.  The anchor was soon made fast, but this was only a
momentary relief.  The breeze again filled the half-empty
balloon like a sail, there was a severe strain on the cable,
then a dull sound, and a severe concussion of the basket--the
cable, strange fatality, had broken, and the anchor, my last
and only hope, was gone.  I was now carried on in a straight
direction towards the sea, which was but a short distance
ahead.  The anchor being lost I gave up all hope.  I sat down
resigned in the car, and prepared for the end.  All at once I
discovered that a side current was drifting me towards the
mountain; the car struck the ground, and was dashing along at a
fearful rate, knocking down stone fences and breaking
everything it came in contact with in its wild career. 
By-and-by the knocks became less frequent.  We were passing
over a cultivated country, and the car was, as it were skimming
the surface and grazing the top of the hedges.  I saw a thick
hawthorn hedge at some distance before me, and the balloon
rapidly sweeping towards it.  That was my only chance.  I
rushed to the edge of the car and flung myself down upon the
hedge."



CHAPTER XXI. THE COMING OF THE FLYING MACHINE.


In the early nineties the air ship was engaging the attention
of many inventors, and was making important strides in the
hands of Mr. Maxim.  This unrivalled mechanician, in stating
the case, premises that a motive power has to be discovered
which can develop at least as much power in proportion to its
weight as a bird is able to develop.  He asserts that a heavy
bird, with relatively small wings--such as a goose--carries
about 150 lb. to the horse power, while the albatross or the
vulture, possessed of proportionately greater winged surface,
can carry about 250 lbs. per horse power.

Professor Langley, of Washington, working contemporaneously,
but independently of Mr. Maxim, had tried exhaustive
experiments on a rotating arm (characteristically designated by
Mr. Maxim a "merry-go-round"), thirty feet long, applying
screw propellers.  He used, for the most part, small planes,
carrying loads of only two or three pounds, and, under these
circumstances, the weight carried was at the rate of 250 lbs.
per horse power.  His important statements with regard to these
trials are that one-horse power will transport a larger weight
at twenty miles an hour than at ten, and a still larger at
forty miles than at twenty, and so on; that "the sustaining
pressure of the air on a plane moving at a small angle of
inclination to a horizontal path is many times greater than
would result from the formula implicitly given by Newton,
while, whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is
maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power
within the limits of experiment, in aerial horizontal transport
the higher speeds are more economical of power than the lower
ones."

This Mr. Maxim is evidently ready to endorse, stating, in his
own words, that birds obtain the greater part of their support
by moving forward with sufficient velocity so as to be
constantly resting on new air, the inertia of which has not
been disturbed.  Mr. Maxim's trials were on a scale comparable
with all his mechanical achievements.  He employed for his
experiments a rotating arm, sweeping out a circle, the
circumference of which was 200 feet.  To the end of this arm he
attached a cigar-shaped apparatus, driven by a screw, and
arranged in such a manner that aero-planes could be attached to
it at any angle.  These planes were on a large scale, carrying
weights of from 20 lbs. to 100 lbs.  With this contrivance he
found that, whatever push the screw communicated to the
aero-plane, "the plane would lift in a vertical direction from
ten to fifteen times as much as the horizontal push that it
received from the screw, and which depended upon the angle at
which the plane was set, and the speed at which the apparatus
was travelling through the air."  Next, having determined by
experiment the power required to perform artificial flight, Mr.
Maxim applied himself to designing the requisite motor.  "I
constructed," he states, "two sets of compound engines of
tempered steel, all the parts being made very light and strong,
and a steam generator of peculiar construction, the greater
part of the heating surface consisting of small and thin copper
tubes. For fuel I employed naphtha."

This Mr. Maxim wrote in 1892, adding that he was then
experimenting with a large machine, having a spread of over 100
feet.  Labour, skill, and money were lavishly devoted
henceforward to the great task undertaken, and it was not long
before the giant flying machine, the outcome of so much patient
experimenting, was completed and put to a practical trial.  Its
weight was 7,500 lbs.  The screw propellers were nearly 18 feet
in diameter, each with two blades, while the engines were
capable of being run up to 360 horse power.  The entire machine
was mounted on an inner railway track of 9 feet and an outer of
35 feet gauge, while above there was a reversed rail along
which the machine would begin to run so soon as with increase
of speed it commenced to lift itself off the inner track.

In one of the latest experiments it was found that when a speed
of 42 miles an hour was attained all the wheels were running on
the upper track, and revolving in the opposite direction from
those on the lower track.  However, after running about 1,000
feet, an axle tree doubled up, and immediately afterwards the
upper track broke away, and the machine, becoming liberated,
floated in the air, "giving those on board a sensation of being
in a boat."

The experiment proved conclusively to the inventor that a
machine could be made on a large scale, in which the lifting
effect should be considerably greater than the weight of the
machine, and this, too, when a steam engine was the motor. 
When, therefore, in the years shortly following, the steam
engine was for the purposes of aerial locomotion superseded by
the lighter and more suitable petrol engine, the construction
of a navigable air ship became vastly more practicable.  Still,
in Sir H. Maxim's opinion, lately expressed, "those who seek to
navigate the air by machines lighter than the air have come,
practically, to the end of their tether," while, on the other
hand, "those who seek to navigate the air with machines heavier
than the air have not even made a start as yet, and the
possibilities before them are very great indeed."

As to the assertion that the aerial navigators last mentioned
"have not even made a start as yet," we can only say that Sir
H. Maxim speaks with far too much modesty.  His own colossal
labours in the direction of that mode of aerial flight, which
he considers to be alone feasible, are of the first importance
and value, and, as far as they have gone, exhaustive.  Had his
experiments been simply confined to his classical
investigations of the proper form of the screw propeller his
name would still have been handed down as a true pioneer in
aeronautics.  His work, however, covers far wider ground, and
he has, in a variety of ways, furnished practical and reliable
data, which must always be an indispensable guide to every
future worker in the same field.

Professor Langley, in attacking the same problem, first studied
the principle and behaviour of a well-known toy--the model
invented by Penaud, which, driven by the tension of
india-rubber, sustains itself in the air for a few seconds.
He constructed over thirty modifications of this model, and
spent many months in trying from these to as certain what he
terms the "laws of balancing leading to horizontal flight." 
His best endeavours at first, however, showed that he needed
three or four feet of sustaining surface to a pound of weight,
whereas he calculated that a bird could soar with a surface of
less than half a foot to the pound.  He next proceeded to
steam-driven models in which for a time he found an insuperable
difficulty in keeping down the weight, which, in practice,
always exceeded his calculation; and it was not till the end of
1893 that he felt himself prepared for a fair trial.  At this
time he had prepared a model weighing between nine and ten
pounds, and he needed only a suitable launching apparatus to be
used over water.  The model would, like a bird, require an
initial velocity imparted to it, and the discovery of a
suitable apparatus gave him great trouble.  For the rest the
facilities for launching were supplied by a houseboat moored on
the Potomac.  Foiled again and again by many difficulties, it
was not till after repeated failures and the lapse of many
months, when, as the Professor himself puts it, hope was low,
that success finally came.  It was in the early part of 1896
that a successful flight was accomplished in the presence of
Dr. Bell, of telephone fame, and the following is a brief
epitome of the account that this accomplished scientist
contributed to the columns of Nature:--

"The flying machine, built, apparently, almost entirely of
metal, was driven by an engine said to weigh, with fuel and
water, about 25 lbs., the supporting surface from tip to tip
being 12 or 14 feet.  Starting from a platform about 20 feet
high, the machine rose at first directly in the face of the
wind, moving with great steadiness, and subsequently wheeling
in large curves until steam was exhausted, when, from a height
of 80 or 100 feet, it shortly settled down.  The experiment was
then repeated with similar results.  Its motion was so steady
that a glass of water might have remained unspilled.  The
actual length of flight each time, which lasted for a minute
and a half, exceeded half a mile, while the velocity was
between twenty and twenty-five miles an hour in a course that
was constantly taking it 'up hill.'  A yet more successful
flight was subsequently made."

But flight of another nature was being courageously attempted
at this time.  Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin, in imitation of the
motion of birds, constructed a flying apparatus which he
operated himself, and with which he could float down from
considerable elevations.  "The feat," he warns tyros, "requires
practice.  In the beginning the height should be moderate, and
the wings not too large, or the wind will soon show that it is
not to be trifled with."  The inventor commenced with all due
caution, making his first attempt over a grass plot from a
spring board one metre high, and subsequently increasing this
height to two and a half metres, from which elevation he could
safely cross the entire grass plot.  Later he launched himself
from the lower ridges of a hill 250 feet high, when he sailed
to a distance of over 250 yards, and this time he writes
enthusiastically of his self-taught accomplishment:--

"To those who, from a modest beginning and with gradually
increased extent and elevation of flight have gained full
control over the apparatus, it is not in the least dangerous to
cross deep and broad ravines.  It is a difficult task to convey
to one who has never enjoyed aerial flight a clear perception
of the exhilarating pleasure of this elastic motion.  The
elevation above the ground loses its terrors, because we have
learned by experience what sure dependence may be placed upon
the buoyancy of the air."

As a commentary to the above we extract the following:--"We
have to record the death of Otto Lilienthal, whose soaring
machine, during a gliding flight, suddenly tilted over at a
height of about 60 feet, by which mishap he met an untimely
death on August 9th, 1896."  Mr. O. Chanute, C.E. of Chicago,
took up the study of gliding flight at the point where
Lilienthal left it, and, later, Professor Fitzgerald and
others.  Besides that invented by Penaud, other aero-plane
models demanding mention had been produced by Tatin, Moy,
Stringfellow, and Lawrence Hargrave, of Australia, the
subsequent inventor of the well-known cellular kite.  These
models, for the most part, aim at the mechanical solution of
the problem connected with the soaring flight of a bird.

The theoretical solution of the same problem had been attacked
by Professor Langley in a masterly monograph, entitled "The
Internal Work of the Wind."  By painstaking experiment with
delicate instruments, specially constructed, the Professor
shows that wind in general, so far from being, as was commonly
assumed, mere air put in motion with an approximately uniform
velocity in the same strata, is, in reality, variable and
irregular in its movements beyond anything which had been
anticipated, being made up, in fact, of a succession of brief
pulsations in different directions, and of great complexity.  
These pulsations, he argues, if of sufficient amplitude and
frequency, would be capable, by reason of their own "internal
work," of sustaining or even raising a suitably curved surface
which was being carried along by the main mean air stream. 
This would account for the phenomenon of "soaring."  Lord
Rayleigh, discussing the same problem, premises that when a
bird is soaring the air cannot be moving uniformly and
horizontally.  Then comes the natural question, Is it moving in
ascending currents?  Lord Rayleigh has frequently noticed such
currents, particularly above a cliff facing the wind.  Again,
to quote another eminent authority, Major Baden-Powell, on an
occasion when flying one of his own kites, found it getting to
so high an angle that it presently rose absolutely overhead,
with the string perpendicular.  He then took up a heavy piece
of wood, which, when tied to the string, began to rise in the
air.  He satisfied himself that this curious result was solely
due to a strong uptake of the air.

But, again, Lord Rayleigh, lending support to Professor
Langley's argument, points out that the apparent cause of
soaring may be the non-uniformity of the wind.  The upper
currents are generally stronger than the lower, and it is
mechanically possible for a bird, taking advantage of two
adjacent air streams, different in velocity, to maintain itself
in air without effort on its own part.

Lord Rayleigh, proceeding to give his views on artificial
flight, declares the main problem of the flying machine to be
the problem of the aerial plane.  He states the case thus:--
"Supposing a plane surface to be falling vertically at the rate
of four miles an hour, and also moving horizontally at the rate
of twenty miles an hour, it might have been supposed that the
horizontal motion would make no difference to the pressure on
its under surface which the falling plane must experience.  We
are told, however, that in actual trial the horizontal motion
much increases the pressure under the falling plane, and it is
this fact on which the possibility of natural and artificial
flight depends.

Ere this opinion had been stated by Lord Rayleigh in his
discourse on "Flight," at the Royal Institution, there were
already at work upon the aero-plane a small army of inventors,
of whom it will be only possible in a future chapter to mention
some. Due reference, however, should here be made to Mr. W. F.
Wenham, of Boston, U.S.A., who had been at work on artificial
flight for many years, and to whose labours in determining
whether man's power is sufficient to raise his own weight Lord
Rayleigh paid a high tribute.  As far back as 1866 Mr. Wenham
had published a paper on aerial locomotion, in which he shows
that any imitation by man of the far-extended wings of a bird
might be impracticable, the alternative being to arrange the
necessary length of wing as a series of aero-planes, a
conception far in advance of many theorists of his time.

But there had been developments in aerostation in other lines,
and it is time to turn from the somewhat tedious technicalities
of mechanical flight and the theory or practice of soaring, to
another important means for traversing the air--the parachute.
This aerial machine, long laid aside, was to lend its aid to
the navigation of the air with a reliability never before
realised.  Professor Baldwin, as he was termed, an American
aeronaut, arrived in England in the summer of 1888, and
commenced giving a series of exhibitions from the Alexandra
Palace with a parachute of his own invention, which, in actual
performance, seems to have been the most perfect instrument of
the kind up to that time devised.  It was said to be about 18
feet in diameter, whereas that of Garnerin, already mentioned,
had a diameter of some 30 feet, and was distinctly top-heavy,
owing to its being thus inadequately ballasted; for it was
calculated that its enormous size would have served for the
safe descent, not of one man, but of four or five.  Baldwin's
parachute, on the contrary, was reckoned to give safe descent
to 250 lbs., which would include weight of man and apparatus,
and reduce the ultimate fall to one not exceeding 8 feet. The
parachute was attached to the ring of a small balloon of 12,000
cubic feet, and the Professor ascended, sitting on a mere sling
of rope, which did duty for a car.

Mr. Thomas Moy, who investigated the mechanics of the
contrivance, estimated that after a drop of 16 feet, the upward
pressure, amounting to over 2 lb. per square foot, would act on
a surface of not less than 254 square feet.  There was, at the
time, much foolish comment on the great distance which the
parachute fell before it opened, a complete delusion due to the
fact that observers failed to see that at the moment of
separation the balloon itself sprang upward.



CHAPTER XXII.  THE STORY OF THE SPENCERS.


It has been in the hands of the Spencers that the parachute, as
also many other practical details of aeronautics, has been
perfected, and some due sketch of the career of this family of
eminent aeronauts must be no longer delayed.

Charles Green had stood godfather to the youngest son of his
friend and colleague, Mr. Edward Spencer, and in later years,
as though to vindicate the fact, this same son took up the
science of aeronautics at the point where his father had left
it.  We find his name in the records of the Patent Office of
1868 as the inventor of a manumetric flying machine, and there
are accounts of the flying leaps of several hundred feet which
he was enabled to take by means of the machine he constructed. 
Again, in 1882 we find him an inventor, this time of the patent
asbestos fire balloon, by means of which the principal danger
to such balloons was overcome.

At this point it is needful to make mention of the third
generation--the several sons who early showed their zeal and
aptitude for perpetuating the family tradition.  It was from
his school playground that the eldest son, Percival, witnessed
with intense interest what appeared like a drop floating in the
sky at an immense altitude.  This proved to be Simmons's
balloon, which had just risen to a vast elevation over Cremorne
Gardens, after having liberated the unfortunate De Groof, as
mentioned in a former chapter.  And one may be sure that the
terrible reality of the disaster that had happened was not lost
on the young schoolboy.  But his wish was to become an
aeronauts, and from this desire nothing deterred him, so that
school days were scarcely over before he began to accompany his
father aloft, and in a very few years, i.e. in 1888, he had
assumed the full responsibilities of a professional balloonist.

It was in this year that Professor Baldwin appeared in England,
and it is easy to understand that the parachute became an
object of interest to the young Spencer, who commenced on his
own account a series of trials at the Alexandra Palace, and it
was now, also, that chance good fortune came his way.  An
Indian gentleman, who was witness of his experiments, and
convinced that a favourable field for their further development
existed in his own country, proposed to the young aspirant that
he should accompany him to India, with equipment suited for the
making of a successful campaign.

Thus it came about that in the early days of 1889, in the
height of the season, Mr. Percival Spencer arrived at Bombay,
and at once commenced professional business in earnest.  Coal
gas being here available, a maiden ascent was quickly arranged,
and duly announced to take place at the Government House,
Paral, the chief attraction being the parachute descent, the
first ever attempted in India.

This preliminary exhibition proving in all ways a complete
success, Mr. Spencer, after a few repetitions of his
performance, repaired to Calcutta; but here great difficulties
were experienced in the matter of gas.  The coal gas available
was inadequate, and when recourse was had to pure hydrogen the
supply proved too sluggish.  At the advertised hour of
departure the balloon was not sufficiently inflated, while the
spectators were growing impatient.  It was at this critical
moment that Mr. Spencer resolved on a surprise.  Suddenly
casting off the parachute, and seated on a mere sling below the
half-inflated balloon, without ballast, without grapnel, and
unprovided with a valve, he sailed away over the heads of the
multitude.

The afternoon was already far advanced, and the short tropical
twilight soon gave way to darkness, when the intrepid voyager
disappeared completely from sight.  Excitement was intense that
night in Calcutta, and greater still the next day when, as hour
after hour went by, no news save a series of wild and false
reports reached the city.  Trains arriving from the country
brought no intelligence, and telegraphic enquiries sent in all
directions proved fruitless.  The Great Eastern Hotel, where
the young man had been staying, was literally besieged for
hours by a large crowd eager for any tidings.  Then the Press
gave expression to the gloomiest forebodings, and the town was
in a fever of unrest.  From the direction the balloon had taken
it was thought that, even if the aeronaut had descended in
safety, he could only have been landed in the jungle of the
Sunderbunds, beset with perils, and without a chance of
succour.  A large reward was offered for reliable information,
and orders were issued to every likely station to organise a
search.  But ere this was fully carried into effect messages
were telegraphed to England definitely asserting that Mr.
Spencer had lost his life.  For all this, after three days he
returned to Calcutta, none the worse for the exploit.

Then the true tale was unravelled.  The balloon had changed its
course from S.E. to E. after passing out of sight of Calcutta,
and eventually came to earth the same evening in the
neighbourhood of Hossainabad, thirty-six miles distant.  During
his aerial flight the voyager's main trouble had been caused by
his cramped position, the galling of his sling seat, and the
numbing effect of cold as he reached high altitudes; but, as
twilight darkened into gloom, his real anxiety was with respect
to his place of landing, for he could with difficulty see the
earth underneath.  He heard the distant roll of the waters,
caused by the numerous creeks which intersect the delta of the
Ganges, and when darkness completely shut out the view it was
impossible to tell whether he was over land or sea.  Fortune
favoured him, however, and reaching dry ground, he sprang from
his seat, relinquishing at the same moment his hold of the
balloon, which instantly disappeared into the darkness.

Then his wanderings began.  He was in an unknown country,
without knowledge of the language, and with only a few rupees
in his pocket.  Presently, however, seeing a light, he
proceeded towards it, but only to find himself stopped by a
creek.  Foiled more than once in this way, he at length arrived
at the dwelling of a family of natives, who promptly fled in
terror.  To inspire confidence and prove that he was mortal,
Mr. Spencer threw his coat over the mud wall of the compound,
with the result that, after examination of the garment, he was
received and cared for in true native fashion, fed with rice
and goat's milk, and allowed the use of the verandah to sleep
in.  He succeeded in communing with the natives by dint of lead
pencil sketches and dumb show, and learned, among other things,
that he had descended in a little clearing surrounded by woods,
and bounded by tidal creeks, which were infested with
alligators.  Yet, in the end, the waterways befriended him;
for, as he was being ferried across, he chanced on his balloon
sailing down on the tide, recovered it, and used the tidal
waters for the return journey.

The greeting upon his arrival in Calcutta was enthusiastic
beyond description from both Europeans and natives.  The hero
of the adventure was visited by rajahs and notables, who vied
with each other in expressions of welcome, in making presents,
even inviting him to visit the sacred precincts of their
zenanas.  The promised parachute descent was subsequently
successfully made at Cossipore, and then followed a busy,
brilliant season, after which the wanderer returned to England. 
By September he is in Dublin, and makes the first parachute
descent ever witnessed in Ireland; but by November he is in
Bombay again, whence, proceeding to Calcutta, he repeats his
success of the year before.  Next he visits Allahabad, where
the same fortune attends him, though his balloon flies away in
a temporary escape into the Jumna.  By May he is ascending at
Singapore, armed here, however, with a cork jacket.

Hence, flushed with success, he repairs to the Dutch Indies,
and demonstrates to the Dutch officers the use of the balloon
in war.  As a natural consequence, he is moved up to the seat
of the Achinese War in Sumatra, where, his balloon being moored
to the rear of an armoured train, an immediate move is made to
the front, and orders are forthwith telephoned from various
centres to open fire on the enemy.  Mr. Spencer, the while
accompanied by an officer, makes a captive ascent, in which for
some time he is actually under the enemy's fire.  The result of
this plucky experiment is a most flattering official report. 
In all the above-mentioned ascents he made his own gas without
a hitch.

Thence he travels on with the same trusty little 12,000 cubic
feet balloon, the same programme, and the same success.  This
is slightly varied, however, at Kobe, Japan, where his
impatient craft fairly breaks away with him, and, soaring high,
flies overhead of a man-of-war, and plumps into the water a
mile out at sea.  But "Smartly" was the word.  The ship's crew
was beat to quarters, and within one minute a boat was to the
rescue.  An ascent at Cairo, where he made a parachute descent
in sight of the Pyramids and landed in the desert, completed
this oriental tour, and home duties necessitated his return to
England.  Among exploits far too many to enumerate may be
mentioned four several occasions when Mr. Percival Spencer has
crossed the English Channel.

It fell to the lot of the second son, Arthur, to carry fame
into fresh fields.  In the year 1897 he visited Australia,
taking with him two balloons, one of these being a noble craft
of 80,000 cubic feet, considerably larger than any balloon used
in England, and the singular fate of this aerial monster is
deserving of mention.

Its trial trip in the new country was arranged to take place on
Boxing Day in the Melbourne Exhibition ground, and for the
lengthy and critical work of inflation the able assistance of
British bluejackets  was secured.  To all appearance, the main
difficulties to be provided against were likely to arise simply
from a somewhat inadequate supply of gas, and on this account
filling commenced as early as 10 a.m. on the morning of the day
previous to the exhibition, and was continued till 6 o'clock in
the afternoon, by which time the balloon, being about half
full, was staved down with sandbags through the night till 4
o'clock the next morning, when the inflation was again
proceeded with without hindrance and apparently under
favourable conditions.  The morning was beautifully fine, warm,
brilliant, and still, and so remained until half-past six,
when, with startling rapidity, there blew up a sudden squall
known in the country as a "Hot Buster," and in two or three
minutes' space a terrific wind storm was sweeping the ground. 
A dozen men, aiding a dead weight of 220 sandbags, endeavoured
to control the plunging balloon, but wholly without avail.  Men
and bags together were lifted clean up in the air on the
windward side, and the silk envelope, not yet completely
filled, at once escaped from the net and, flying upwards to a
height estimated at 10,000 feet, came to earth again ninety
miles away in a score of fragments.  Nothing daunted, however,
Mr. Spencer at once endeavoured to retrieve his fortunes, and
started straightway for the gold-mining districts of Ballarat
and Bendigo with a hot-air balloon, with which he successfully
gave a series of popular exhibitions of parachute descents. 
Few aeronauts are more consistently reliable than Mr. Arthur
Spencer.  A few summers ago in this country he was suddenly
called upon to give proof of his prowess and presence of mind
in a very remarkable manner.  It was at an engagement at
Reading, where he had been conducting captive ascents
throughout the afternoon, and was requested to conclude the
evening with a "right away," in which two passengers had agreed
to accompany him.  The balloon had been hauled down for the
last time, when, by some mistake, the engine used for the
purpose proceeded to work its pump without previously
disconnecting the hauling gear.  The consequence of this was
that the cable instantly snapped, and in a moment the large
balloon, devoid of ballast, grapnel, or other appliances, and
with neck still tied, was free, and started skyward.

The inevitable result of this accident must have been that the
balloon in a few seconds would rise to a height where the
expansion of the imprisoned gas would burst and destroy it. 
Mr. Spencer, however, was standing near, and, grasping the
situation in a moment, caught at the car as it swung upwards,
and, getting hold, succeeded in drawing himself up and so
climbing into the ring. Quickly as this was done, the balloon
was already distended to the point of bursting, and only the
promptest release of gas averted catastrophe.

Mr. Stanley Spencer made himself early known to the world by a
series of parachute descents, performed from the roof of
Olympia.  It was a bold and sensational exhibition, and on the
expiration of his engagement the young athlete, profiting by
home training, felt fully qualified to attempt any aerial feat
connected with the profession of an aeronaut.  And at this
juncture an eminent American cyclist, visiting the father's
factory, suggested to Stanley a business tour in South America.

As an extra attraction it was proposed that a young lady
parachutist should be one of the company; so, after a few
satisfactory trial exhibitions in England, the party made their
way to Rio, Brazil.  Here an ascent was arranged, and by the
day and hour appointed the balloon was successfully inflated
with hydrogen, an enormous concourse collected, and the lady
performer already seated in the sling.  Then a strange
mischance happened.  By some means, never satisfactorily
explained, the young woman, at the moment of release, slipped
from her seat, and the balloon, escaping into the air, turned
over and fell among the people, who vindictively destroyed it. 
Then the crowd grew ungovernable, and threatened the lives of
the aeronauts, who eventually were, with difficulty, rescued by
the soldiery.

This was a bad start; but with a spare balloon a fresh attempt
at an ascent was arranged, though, from another cause, with no
better success.  This time a furious storm arose, before the
inflation was completed, and the balloon, carrying away, was
torn to ribbons.  Yet a third time, with a hot air balloon now,
a performance was advertised and successfully carried out; but,
immediately after, Mr. Spencer's American friend succumbed to
yellow fever, and the young man, being thrown on his own
resources, had to fight his own way until his fortunes had been
sufficiently restored to return to England.

A few months later he set sail for Canada, where for several
months he had a most profitable career, on one occasion only
meeting with some difficulty.  He was giving an exhibition on
Prince Edward's Island, not far from the sea, but on a day so
calm that he did not hesitate to ascend.  On reaching 3,000
feet, however, he was suddenly caught by a strong land breeze,
which, ere he could reach the water, had carried him a mile out
to sea, and here he was only rescued after a long interval,
during which he had become much exhausted in his attempts to
save his parachute from sinking.

Early in 1892 our traveller visited South Africa with a hot air
balloon, and, fortune continuing to favour him, he subsequently
returned to Canada, and proceeded thence to the United States
and Cuba.  It was at Havannah that popular enthusiasm in his
favour ran so high that he was presented with a medal by the
townsfolk.  It was from here also that, a little while after,
tidings of his own death reached him, together with most
gratifying obituary notices.  It would seem that, after his
departure, an adventurer, attempting to personate him, met with
his death.

In November, 1897, he followed his elder brother's footsteps to
the East, and exhibited in Calcutta, Singapore, Canton, and
also Hong-Kong, where, for the first and only time in his
experience, he met with serious accident.  He was about to
ascend for the ordinary parachute performance with a hot air
balloon, which was being held down by about thirty men, one
among them being a Chinaman possessed of much excitability and
very long finger nails.  By means of these latter the man
contrived to gouge a considerable hole in the fabric of the
balloon.  Mr. Spencer, to avoid a disappointment, risked an
ascent, and it was not till the balloon had reached 600 feet
that the rent developed into a long slit, and so brought about
a sudden fall to earth.  Alighting on the side of a mountain,
Mr. Spencer lay helpless with a broken leg till the arrival of
some British bluejackets, who conveyed him to the nearest
surgeon, when, after due attention, he was sent home.  Other
remarkable exploits, which Mr. Stanley Spencer shared with Dr.
Berson and with the writer and his daughter, will be recorded
later.



CHAPTER XXIII. NEW DEPARTURES IN AEROSTATION.


After Mr. Coxwell's experiments at Aldershot in 1862 the
military balloon, as far as England was concerned, remained in
abeyance for nine long years, when the Government appointed a
Commission to enquire into its utility, and to conduct further
experiments.  The members of this committee were Colonel Noble,
R.E., Sir F. Abel, Captain Lee, R.E., assisted by Captain
Elsdale, R.E., and Captain (now Colonel) Templer.  Yet another
nine years, however, elapsed before much more was heard of this
modernised military engine.

But about the beginning of the eighties the Government had
become fully alive to the importance of the subject, and Royal
Engineers at Woolwich grew busy with balloon manufacture and
experiment.  Soon "the sky around London became speckled with
balloons."  The method of making so-called pure hydrogen by
passing steam over red-hot iron was fully tested, and for a
time gained favour.  The apparatus, weighing some three tons,
was calculated to be not beyond the carrying powers of three
service waggons, while it was capable of generating enough gas
to inflate two balloons in twenty-four hours, a single
inflation holding good, under favourable circumstances, for a
long period.  At the Brighton Volunteer Review of 1880, Captain
Templer, with nine men, conducted the operations of a captive
reconnoitring balloon.  This was inflated at the Lewes gas
works, and then towed two and a half miles across a river, a
railway, and a line of telegraph wires, after which it was let
up to a height of 1,500 feet, whence, it was stated, that so
good a view was obtained that "every man was clearly seen."  Be
it remembered, however, that the country was not the South
African veldt, and every man was in the striking English
uniform of that date.

Just at this juncture came the Egyptian War, and it will be
recalled that in the beginning of that war balloons were
conspicuous by their absence.  The difficulties of
reconnaissance were keenly felt and commented on, and among
other statements we find the following in the war intelligence
of the Times:--

"As the want of a balloon equipment has been mentioned in
letters from Egypt, it may be stated that all the War
Department balloons remain in store at the Royal Dockyard at
Woolwich, but have been recently examined and found perfectly
serviceable."  An assertion had been made to the effect that
the nature of the sand in Egypt would impede the transport of
the heavy material necessary for inflation.  At last, however,
the order came for the despatch of the balloon equipment to the
front, and though this arrived long after Tel-el-Kebir, yet it
is recorded that the first ascent in real active service in the
British Army took place on the 25th of March, 1885, at Suakin,
and balloons becoming regarded as an all-important part of the
equipment of war, they were sent out in the Bechuanaland
Expedition under Sir Charles Warren, the supply of gas being
shipped to Cape Town in cylinders.

It was at this period that, according to Mr. Coxwell, Lord
Wolseley made ascents at home in a war balloon to form his own
personal opinion of their capabilities, and, expressing this
opinion to one of his staff, said that had he been able to
employ balloons in the earlier stages of the Soudan campaign
the affair would not have lasted as many months as it did
years.  This statement, however, should be read in conjunction
with another of the same officer in the "Soldier's Pocket
Book," that "in a windy country balloons are useless."  In the
Boer War the usefulness of the balloon was frequently tested,
more particularly during the siege of Ladysmith, when it was
deemed of great value in directing the fire of the British
artillery, and again in Buller's advance, where the balloon is
credited with having located a "death-trap" of the enemy at
Spion Kop.  Other all-important service was rendered at
Magersfontein.  The Service balloon principally used was made
of goldbeaters' skin, containing about 10,000 cubic feet of
hydrogen, which had been produced by the action of sulphuric
acid on zinc, and compressed in steel cylinders.  A special gas
factory was, for the purpose of the campaign, established at
Cape Town.

It is here that reference must be made to some of the special
work undertaken by Mr. Eric S. Bruce, which dealt with the
management of captive balloons under different conditions, and
with a system of signalling thus rendered feasible.  Mr. Bruce,
who, since Major Baden-Powell's retirement from the office, has
devoted his best energies as secretary to the advancement of
the British Aeronautical Society, was the inventor of the
system of electric balloon signalling which he supplied to the
British Government, as well as to the Belgian and Italian
Governments.  This system requires but a very small balloon,
made of three or four thicknesses of goldbeaters' skin,
measuring from 7 to 10 feet in diameter, and needing only two
or three gas cylinders for inflation.  Within the balloon,
which is sufficiently translucent, are placed several
incandescent lamps in metallic circuit, with a source of
electricity on the ground.  This source of electricity may
consist of batteries of moderate size or a portable hand
dynamo.  In the circuit is placed an apparatus for making and
breaking contact rapidly, and by varying the duration of the
flashes in the balloon telegraphic messages may be easily
transmitted.  To overcome the difficulty of unsteadiness, under
circumstances of rough weather, in the captive balloon which
carried the glow lamps, Mr. Bruce experimented with guy ropes,
and gave a most successful exhibition of their efficiency
before military experts at Stamford Bridge grounds, though a
stiff wind was blowing at the time.

It must be perfectly obvious, however, that a captive balloon
in a wind is greatly at a disadvantage, and to counteract this,
attempts have been made in the direction of a combination
between the balloon and a kite.  This endeavour has been
attended with some measure of success in the German army.  Mr.
Douglas Archibald, in England, was one of the first to advocate
the kite balloon.  In 1888 he called attention to the
unsatisfactory behaviour of captive balloons in variable winds,
dropping with every gust and rising again with a lull.  In
proof he described an expedient of Major Templer's, where an
attempt was being made to operate a photographic camera hoisted
by two tandem kites.  "The balloon," he writes, "went up
majestically, and all seemed very satisfactory until a mile of
cable had been run out, and the winder locked."  It was then
that troubles began which threatened the wreckage of the
apparatus, and Mr. Archibald, in consequence, strongly
recommended a kite balloon at that time.  Twelve years later
the same able experimentalist, impressed with the splendid work
done by kites alone for meteorological purposes at least,
allowed that he was quite content to "let the kite balloon go
by."

But the German school of aeronauts were doing bigger things
than making trials with kite balloons.  The German Society for
the Promotion of Aerial Navigation, assisted by the Army
Balloon Corps, were busy in 1888, when a series of important
ascents were commenced.  Under the direction of Dr. Assmann,
the energetic president of the aeronautical society above
named, captive ascents were arranged in connection with free
ascents for meteorological purposes, and it was thus
practicable to make simultaneous observations at different
levels.  These experiments, which were largely taken up on the
Continent, led to others of yet higher importance, in which the
unmanned balloon took a part.  But the Continental annals of
this date contain one unhappy record of another nature, the
recounting of which will, at least, break the monotony
attending mere experimental details.

In October, 1893, Captain Charbonnet, an enthusiastic French
aeronaut, resolved on spending his honeymoon, with the full
consent of his bride, in a prolonged balloon excursion.  The
start was to be made from Turin, and, the direction of travel
lying across the Alps, it was the hope of the voyagers
eventually to reach French territory.  The ascent was made in
perfect safety, as was also the first descent, at the little
village of Piobesi, ten miles away.  Here a halt was made for
the night, and the next morning, when a fresh start was
determined on, two young Italians, Signori Botto and Durando,
were taken on board as assistants, for the exploit began to
assume an appearance of some gravity, and this the more so when
storm clouds began brewing.  At an altitude of 10,000 feet
cross-currents were encountered, and the course becoming
obscured the captain descended to near the earth, where he
discovered himself to be in dangerous proximity to gaunt
mountain peaks.  On observing this, he promptly cast out sand
so liberally that the balloon rose to a height approaching
20,000 feet, when a rapid descent presently began, and refused
to be checked, even with the expenditure of all available
ballast.

All the while the earth remained obscured, but, anticipating a
fall among the mountains, Captain Charbonnet bade his
companions lie down in the car while he endeavoured to catch
sight of some landmark; but, quite suddenly, the balloon struck
some mountain slope with such force as to throw the captain
back into the car with a heavy blow over the eye; then,
bounding across a gulley, it struck again and yet again,
falling and rebounding between rocky walls, till it settled on
a steep and snowy ridge.  Darkness was now closing in, and the
party, without food or proper shelter, had to pass the night as
best they might on the bare spot where they fell, hoping for
encouragement with the return of day.  But dawn showed them to
be on a dangerous peak, 10,000 feet high, whence they must
descend by their own unassisted efforts.  After a little
clambering the captain, who was in a very exhausted state, fell
through a hidden crevasse, fracturing his skull sixty feet
below.  The remaining three struggled on throughout the day,
and had to pass a second night on the mountain, this time
without covering.  On the third day they met with a shepherd,
who conducted them with difficulty to the little village of
Balme.

This story, by virtue of its romance, finds a place in these
pages; but, save for its tragic ending, it hardly stands alone. 
Ballooning enterprise and adventure were growing every year
more and more common on the Continent.  In Scandinavia we find
the names of Andree, Fraenkal, and Strindberg; in Denmark that
of Captain Rambusch.  Berlin and Paris had virtually become the
chief centres of the development of ballooning as a science. 
In the former city a chief among aeronauts had arisen in Dr. A.
Berson, who, in December, 1894, not only reached 30,000 feet,
ascending alone, but at that height sustained himself
sufficiently, by inhaling oxygen, to take systematic
observations throughout the entire voyage of five hours.  The
year before, in company with Lieutenant Gross, he barely
escaped with his life, owing to tangled ropes getting foul of
the valve.  Toulet and those who accompanied him lost their
lives near Brussels.  Later Wolfert and his engineer were
killed near Berlin, while Johannsen and Loyal fell into the
Sound.  Thus ever fresh and more extended enterprise was
embarked upon with good fortune and ill.  In fact, it had
become evident to all that the Continent afforded facilities
for the advancement of aerial exploration which could be met
with in no other parts of the world, America only excepted. 
And it was at this period that the expedient of the ballon
sonde, or unmanned balloon, was happily thought of.  One of
these balloons, the "Cirrus," among several trials, rose to a
height, self-registered, of 61,000 feet, while a possible
greater height has been accorded to it.  On one occasion,
ascending from Berlin, it fell in Western Russia, on another in
Bosnia.  Then, in 1896, at the Meteorological Conference at
Paris, with Mascart as President, Gustave Hermite, with
characteristic ardour, introduced a scheme of national ascents
with balloons manned and unmanned, and this scheme was soon put
in effect under a commission of famous names--Andree, Assmann,
Berson, Besancon, Cailletet, Erk, de Fonvielle, Hergesell,
Hermite, Jaubert, Pomotzew (of St. Petersburg), and Rotch (of
Boston, Mass.).

In November, 1896, five manned balloons and three unmanned
ascended simultaneously from France, Germany, and Russia.  The
next year saw, with the enterprise of these nations, the
co-operation of Austria and Belgium.  Messrs. Hermite and
Besancon, both French aeronauts, were the first to make
practical trial of the method of sounding the upper air by
unmanned balloons, and, as a preliminary attempt, dismissed
from Paris a number of small balloons, a large proportion of
which were recovered, having returned to earth after less than
100 miles' flight.  Larger paper balloons were now constructed,
capable of carrying simple self-recording instruments, also
postcards, which became detached at regular intervals by the
burning away of slow match, and thus indicated the path of the
balloon.  The next attempt was more ambitious, made with a
goldbeaters' skin balloon containing 4,000 cubic feet of gas,
and carrying automatic instruments of precision.  This balloon
fell in the Department of the Yonne, and was returned to Paris
with the instruments, which remained uninjured, and which
indicated that an altitude of 49,000 feet had been reached, and
a minimum temperature of -60 degrees encountered.  Yet larger
balloons of the same nature were then experimented with in
Germany, as well as France.

A lack of public support has crippled the attempts of
experimentalists in this country, but abroad this method of
aerial exploration continues to gain favour.

Distinct from, and supplementing, the records obtained by free
balloons, manned or unmanned, are those to be gathered from an
aerostat moored to earth.  It is here that the captive balloon
has done good service to meteorology, as we have shown, but
still more so has the high-flying kite.  It must long have been
recognised that instruments placed on or near the ground are
insufficient for meteorological purposes, and, as far back as
1749, we find Dr. Wilson, of Glasgow, employing kites to
determine the upper currents, and to carry thermometers into
higher strata of the air.  Franklin's kite and its application
is matter of history.  Many since that period made experiments
more or less in earnest to obtain atmospheric observations by
means of kites, but probably the first in England, at least to
obtain satisfactory results, was Mr. Douglas Archibald, who,
during the eighties, was successful in obtaining valuable wind
measurements, as also other results, including aerial
photographs, at varying altitudes up to 1,000 or 1,200 feet.
From that period the records of serious and systematic kite
flying must be sought in America.  Mr. W. A. Eddy was one of the
pioneers, and a very serviceable tailless kite, in which the
cross-bar is bowed away from the wind, is his invention, and
has been much in use.  Mr. Eddy established his kite at Blue
Hill--the now famous kite observatory--and succeeded in lifting
self-recording meteorological instruments to considerable
heights.  The superiority of readings thus obtained is obvious
from the fact that fresh air-streams are constantly playing on
the instruments.

A year or two later a totally dissimilar kite was introduced by
Mr. Lawrence Hargrave, of Sydney, Australia.  This invention,
which has proved of the greatest utility and efficiency, would,
from its appearance, upset all conventional ideas of what a
kite should be, resembling in its simplest form a mere box,
minus the back and front.  Nevertheless, these kites, in their
present form, have carried instruments to heights of upwards of
two miles, the restraining line being fine steel piano wire.

But another and most efficient kite, admirably adapted for many
most important purposes, is that invented by Major
Baden-Powell.  The main objects originally aimed at in the
construction of this kite related to military operations, such
as signalling, photography, and the raising of a man to an
elevation for observational purposes.  In the opinion of the
inventor, who is a practiced aeronaut, a wind of over thirty
miles an hour renders a captive balloon useless, while a kite
under such conditions should be capable of taking its place in
the field.  Describing his early experiments, Major, then
Captain, Baden-Powell, stated that in 1894, after a number of
failures, he succeeded with a hexagonal structure of cambric,
stretched on a bamboo framework 36 feet high, in lifting a
man--not far, but far enough to prove that his theories were
right.  Later on, substituting a number of small kites for one
big one, he was, on several occasions, raised to a height of
100 feet, and had sent up sand bags, weighing 9 stone, to 300
feet, at which height they remained suspended nearly a whole
day.

This form of kite, which has been further developed, has been
used in the South African campaign in connection with wireless
telegraphy for the taking of photographs at great heights,
notably at Modder River, and for other purposes.

It has been claimed that the first well-authenticated occasion
of a man being raised by a kite was when at Pirbright Camp a
Baden-Powell kite, 30 feet high, flown by two lines, from which
a basket was suspended, took a man up to a height of 10 feet. 
It is only fair, however, to state that it is related that more
than fifty years ago a lady was lifted some hundred feet by a
great kite constructed by one George Pocock, whose machine was
designed for an observatory in war, and also for drawing
carriages along highways.



CHAPTER XXIV.  ANDREE AND HIS VOYAGES


Among many suggestions, alike important and original, due to
Major Baden-Powell, and coming within the field of aeronautics,
is one having reference to the use of balloons for geographical
research generally and more particularly for the exploration of
Egypt, which, in his opinion, is a country possessing many most
desirable qualifications on the score of prevailing winds, of
suitable base, and of ground adapted for such steering as may be
effected with a trail rope.  At the Bristol meeting of the
British Association the Major thus propounded his method: "I
should suggest several balloons, one of about 60,000 cubic feet,
and, say, six smaller ones of about 7,000 cubic feet; then, if
one gets torn or damaged, the others might remain intact.  After
a time, when gas is lost, one of the smaller ones could be
emptied into the others, and the exhausted envelope discharged
as ballast; the smaller balloons would be easier to transport by
porters than one big one, and they could be more easily secured
on the earth during contrary winds.  Over the main balloon a
light awning might be rigged to neutralise, as far as possible,
the changes of temperature.  A lightning conductor to the top of
the balloon might be desirable.  A large sail would be arranged,
and a bifurcated guide rope attached to the end of a horizontal
pole would form an efficient means of steering.  The car would
be boat-shaped and waterproof, so that it could be used for a
return journey down a river.  Water tanks would be fitted."

The reasonableness of such a scheme is beyond question, even
without the working calculations with which it is accompanied;
but, ere these words were spoken, one of the most daring
explorers that the world has known had begun to put in practice
a yet bolder and rasher scheme of his own.  The idea of
reaching the North Pole by means of balloons appears to have
been entertained many years ago.  In a curious work, published
in Paris in 1863 by Delaville Dedreux, there is a suggestion
for reaching the North Pole by an aerostat which should be
launched from the nearest accessible point, the calculation
being that the distance from such a starting place to the Pole
and back again would be only some 1,200 miles, which could be
covered in two days, supposing only that there could be found a
moderate and favourable wind in each direction.  Mr. C. G.
Spencer also wrote on the subject, and subsequently Commander
Cheyne proposed a method of reaching the Pole by means of
triple balloons.  A similar scheme was advocated in yet more
serious earnest by M. Hermite in the early eighties.

Some ten years later than this M. S. A. Andree, having obtained
sufficient assistance, took up the idea with the determined
intention of pushing it to a practical issue.  He had already
won his spurs as an aeronaut, as may be briefly told.  In
October, 1893, when making an ascent for scientific purposes,
his balloon got carried out over the Baltic.  It may have been
the strength of the wind that had taken him by surprise; but,
there being now no remedy, it was clearly the speed and
persistence of the wind that alone could save him.  If a chance
vessel could not, or would not, "stand by," he must make the
coast of Finland or fall in the sea, and several times the fall
in the sea seemed imminent as his balloon commenced dropping. 
This threatened danger induced him to cast away his anchor,
after which the verge of the Finland shore was nearly reached,
when a change of wind began to carry him along the rocky coast,
just as night was setting in.

Recognising his extreme danger, Andree stood on the edge of the
car, with a bag of ballast ready for emergencies.  He actually
passed over an island, on which was a building with a light;
but failed to effect a landing, and so fell in the sea on the
farther side; but, the balloon presently righting itself,
Andree, now greatly exhausted, made his last effort, and as he
rose over the next cliff jumped for his life.  It was past 7
p.m. when he found himself once again on firm ground, but with
a sprained leg and with no one within call.  Seeking what
shelter he could, he lived out the long night, and, being now
scarce able to stand, took off his clothes and waved them for a
signal.  This signal was not seen, yet shortly a boat put off
from an island--the same that he had passed the evening before-
-and rowed towards him.  The boatman overnight had seen a
strange sail sweeping over land and sea, and he had come in
quest of it, bringing timely succour to the castaway.

Briefly stated, Andree's grand scheme was to convey a suitable
balloon, with means for inflating it, as also all necessary
equipment, as far towards the Pole as a ship could proceed, and
thence, waiting for a favourable wind, to sail by sky until the
region of the Pole should be crossed, and some inhabited
country reached beyond.  The balloon was to be kept near the
earth, and steered, as far as this might be practicable, by
means of a trail rope.  The balloon, which had a capacity of
nearly 162,000 cubic feet, was made in Paris, and was provided
with a rudder sail and an arrangement whereby the hang of the
trail rope could be readily shifted to different positions on
the ring.  Further, to obviate unnecessary diffusion and loss
of gas at the mouth, the balloon was fitted with a lower valve,
which would only open at a moderate pressure, namely, that of
four inches of water.

All preparations were completed by the summer of 1896, and on
June 7th the party embarked at Gothenburg with all necessaries
on board, arriving at Spitzbergen on June 21st.  Andree, who
was to be accompanied on his aerial voyage by two companions,
M. Nils Strindberg and Dr.  Ekholm, spent some time in
selecting a spot that would seem suitable for their momentous
start, and this was finally found on Dane's Island, where their
cargo was accordingly landed.

The first operation was the erection of a wooden shed, the
materials for which they had brought with them, as a protection
from the wind.  It was a work which entailed some loss of time,
after which the gas apparatus had to be got into order, so
that, in spite of all efforts, it was the 27th of July before
the balloon was inflated and in readiness.

A member of an advance party of an eclipse  expedition arriving
in Spitzbergen at this period, and paying a visit to Andree for
the purpose of taking him letters, wrote:--" We watched him
deal out the letters to his men.  They are all volunteers and
include seven sea captains, a lawyer, and other people some
forty in all.  Andree chaffed each man to whom he gave a
letter, and all were as merry as crickets over the business.... 
We spent our time in watching preparations.  The vaseline (for
soaking the guide ropes) caught fire to-day, but, luckily no
rope was in the pot."

But the wind as yet was contrary, and day after day passed
without any shift to a favourable quarter, until the captain of
the ship which had conveyed them was compelled to bring matters
to an issue by saying that they must return home without delay
if he was to avoid getting frozen in for the winter.  The
balloon had now remained inflated for twenty-one days, and Dr. 
Ekholm, calculating that the leakage of gas amounted to nearly
1 per cent. per day, became distrustful of the capability of
such a vessel to cope with such a voyage as had been aimed at. 
The party had now no choice but to return home with their
balloon, leaving, however, the shed and gas-generating
apparatus for another occasion.

This occasion came the following summer, when the dauntless
explorers returned to their task, leaving Gothenburg on May
28th, 1897, in a vessel lent by the King of Sweden, and
reaching Dane's Island on the 30th of the same month.  Dr. 
Ekholm had retired from the enterprise, but in his place were
two volunteers, Messrs. Frankel and Svedenborg, the latter as
"odd man," to fill the place of any of the other three who
might be prevented from making the final venture.

It was found that the shed had suffered during the winter, and
some time was spent in making the repairs and needful
preparation, so that the month of June was half over before all
was in readiness for the inflation.  This operation was then
accomplished in four days, and by midnight of June 22nd the
balloon was at her moorings, full and in readiness; but, as in
the previous year, the wind was contrary, and remained so for
nearly three weeks.  This, of course, was a less serious
matter, inasmuch as the voyagers were a month earlier with
their preparation, but so long a delay must needs have told
prejudicially against the buoyancy of the balloon, and Andree
is hardly to be blamed for having, in the end, committed
himself to a wind that was not wholly favourable.

The wind, if entirely from the right direction, should have
been due south, but on July 11th it had veered to a direction
somewhat west of south, and Andree, tolerating no further
delay, seized this as his best opportunity, and with a wind
"whistling through the woodwork of the shed and flapping the
canvas," accompanied by Frankel and Svedenborg, started on his
ill-fated voyage.

A telegram which Andree wrote for the Press at that epoch ran
thus:--" At this moment, 2.30 p.m., we are ready to start.  We
shall probably be driven in a north-north-easterly direction."

On July 22nd a carrier pigeon was recovered by the fishing boat
Alken between North Cape, Spitzbergen, and Seven Islands,
bearing a message, "July 13th, 12.30 p.m., 82 degrees  2
minutes north lat., 15 degrees 5 minutes east long.  Good
journey eastward.  All goes well on board.  Andree."

Not till August 31st was there picked up in the Arctic zone a
buoy, which is preserved in the Museum of Stockholm.  It bears
the message, "Buoy No. 4.  First to be thrown out.  11th July,
10 p.m., Greenwich mean time.  All well up till now.  We are
pursuing our course at an altitude of about 250 metres
Direction at first northerly 10 degrees east; later; northerly
45 degrees east.  Four carrier pigeons were despatched at 5.40
p.m.  They flew westwards.  We are now above the ice, which is
very cut up in all directions.  Weather splendid.  In excellent
spirits.--Andree, Svedenborg, Frankel.  (Postscript later on.)
Above the clouds, 7.45, Greenwich mean time."

According to Reuter, the Anthropological and Geological Society
at Stockholm received the following telegram from a ship owner
at Mandal:--"Captain Hueland, of the steamship Vaagen who
arrived there on Monday morning, reports that when off Kola
Fjord, Iceland, in 65 degrees 34 minutes north lat., 21 degrees
28 minutes west long., on May 14th he found a drifting buoy,
marked 'No. 7.'  Inside the buoy was a capsule marked 'Andree's
Polar Expedition,' containing a slip of paper, on which was
given the following: 'Drifting Buoy No. 7.  This buoy was
thrown out from Andree's balloon on July 11th 1897, 10.55 p.m.,
Greenwich mean time, 82 degrees north lat., 25 degrees east
lon.  We are at an altitude of 600 metres.  All well.--Andree,
Svedenborg, Frankel.' "

Commenting on the first message, Mr. Percival Spencer says:--"I
cannot place reliance upon the accuracy of either the date or
else the lat. and long. given, as I am confident that the
balloon would have travelled a greater distance in two days."
It should be noted that Dane's Island lies in 79 degrees 30
minutes north lat. and 10 degrees 10 minutes east long.

Mr. Spencer's opinion, carefully considered and expressed
eighteen months afterwards, will be read with real interest:--

"The distance from Dane's Island to the Pole is about 750
miles, and to Alaska on the other side about 1,500 miles.  The
course of the balloon, however, was not direct to the Pole, but
towards Franz Josef Land (about 600 miles) and to the Siberian
coast (another 800 miles).  Judging from the description of
the wind at the start, and comparing it with my own ballooning
experience, I estimate its speed as 40 miles per hour, and it
will, therefore, be evident that a distance of 2,000 miles
would be covered in 50 hours, that is two days and two hours
after the start.  I regard all theories as to the balloon being
capable of remaining in the air for a month as illusory.  No
free balloon has ever remained aloft for more than 36 hours,
but with the favourable conditions at the northern regions
(where the sun does not set and where the temperature remains
equable) a balloon might remain in the air for double the
length of time which I consider ample for the purpose of Polar
exploration."

A record of the direction of the wind was made after Andree's
departure, and proved that there was a fluctuation in direction
from S.W. to N.W., indicating that the voyagers may have been
borne across towards Siberia.  This, however, can be but
surmise.  All aeronauts of experience know that it is an
exceedingly difficult manoeuvre to keep a trail rope dragging
on the ground if it is desirable to prevent contact with the
earth on the one hand, or on the other to avoid loss of gas.  A
slight increase of temperature or drying off of condensed
moisture may--indeed, is sure to after a while--lift the rope
off the ground, in which case the balloon, rising into upper
levels, may be borne away on currents which may be of almost
any direction, and of which the observer below may know
nothing.  As to the actual divergence from the wind's direction
which a trail rope and side sail might be hoped to effect, it
may be confidently stated that, notwithstanding some wonderful
accounts that have gone abroad, it must not be relied on as
commonly amounting to much more than one or, at the most, two
points.

Although it is to be feared that trustworthy information as to
the ultimate destination of Andree's balloon may never be
gained, yet we may safely state that his ever famous, though
regrettable, voyage was the longest in duration ever attained. 
At the end of 48 hours his vessel would seem to have been still
well up and going strong.  The only other previous voyage that
had in duration of travel approached this record was that made
by M.  Mallet, in 1892, and maintained for 36 hours.  Next we
may mention that of M. Herve, in 1886, occupying 24 1/2 hours,
which feat, however, was almost equal led by the great Leipzig
balloon in 1897, which, with eight people in the car, remained
up for 24 1/4 hours, and did not touch earth till 1,032 miles
had been traversed.

The fabric of Andree's balloon may not be considered to have
been the best for such an exceptional purpose.  Dismissing
considerations of cost, goldbeaters' skin would doubtless have
been more suitable.  The military balloons at Aldershot are
made of this, and one such balloon has been known to remain
inflated for three months with very little loss.  It is
conceivable, therefore, that the chances of the voyagers, whose
ultimate safety depended so largely upon the staying power of
their aerial vessel, might have been considerably increased.

One other expedient, wholly impracticable, but often seriously
discussed, may be briefly referred to, namely, the idea of
taking up apparatus for pumping gas into metal receivers as the
voyage proceeds, in order to raise or lower a balloon, and in
this way to prolong its life.  Mr. Wenham has investigated the
point with his usual painstaking care, and reduced its
absurdity to a simple calculation, which should serve to banish
for good such a mere extravagant theory.

Suppose, he says, the gas were compressed to one-twentieth part
of its bulk, which would mean a pressure within its receiver of
300 lbs. per square inch, and that each receiver had a capacity
of 1 cubic foot, while for safety sake it was made of steel
plates one-twentieth of an inch thick, then each receiver would
weigh 10 lbs., and to liberate 1,000 feet clearly a weight of
500 lbs. would have to be taken up.  Now, when it is considered
that 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen will only lift 72 lbs., the
scheme begins to look hope less enough.  But when the question
of the pumping apparatus, to be worked by hand, is contemplated
the difficulties introduced become yet more insuperable.  The
only feasible suggestion with respect the use of compressed gas
is that of taking on board charged cylinders under high
pressure, which, after being discharged to supply the leakage
of the balloon could, in an uninhabited country, be cast out as
ballast last.  It will need no pointing out, however, that such
an idea would be practically as futile as another which has
gravely been recommended, namely, that of heating the gas of
the balloon by a Davy lamp, so as to increase its buoyancy at
will.  Major Baden-Powell has aptly described this as
resembling "an attempt to warm a large hall with a small spirit
lamp.'

In any future attempt to reach the Pole by balloon it is
not unreasonable to suppose that wireless telegraphy will be
put in practice to maintain communication with the base.  The
writer's personal experience of the possibilities afforded by
this mode of communication, yet in its infancy, will be given.



CHAPTER XXV.  THE MODERN AIRSHIP--IN SEARCH OF THE LEONIDS.


In the autumn of 1898 the aeronautical world was interested to
hear that a young Brazilian, M. Santos Dumont, had completed a
somewhat novel dirigible balloon, cylindrical in shape, with
conical ends, 83 feet long by 12 feet in diameter, holding
6,500 cubic feet of gas, and having a small compensating
balloon of 880 cubic feet capacity.  For a net was substituted
a simple contrivance, consisting of two side pockets, running
the length of the balloon, and containing battens of wood, to
which were affixed the suspension cords, bands being also sewn
over the upper part of the balloon connecting the two pockets. 
The most important novelty, however, was the introduction of a
small petroleum motor similar to those used for motor
tricycles.

The inventor ascended in this balloon, inflated with pure
hydrogen, from the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, and circled
several times round the large captive balloon in the Gardens,
after which, moving towards the Bois de Boulogne, he made
several sweeps of 100 yards radius.  Then the pump of the
compensator caused the engine to stop, and the machine,
partially collapsing, fell to the ground.  Santos Dumont was
somewhat shaken, but announced his intention of making other
trials.  In this bold and successful attempt there was clear
indication of a fresh phase in the construction of the airship,
consisting in the happy adoption of the modern type of
petroleum motor.  Two other hying machines were heard of about
this date, one by Professor Giampietre, of Pavia, cigar-shaped,
driven by screws, and rigged with masts and sails.  The other,
which had been constructed and tested in strict privacy, was
the invention of a French engineer, M. Ader, and was imagined
to imitate the essential structure of a bird.  Two steam motors
of 20-horse power supplied the power.  It was started by being
run on the ground on small wheels attached to it, and it was
claimed that before a breakdown occurred the machine had
actually raised itself into the air.

Of Santos Dumont the world was presently to know more, and the
same must be said of another inventor, Dr. Barton, of
Beckenham, who shortly completed an airship model carrying
aeroplanes and operated by clockwork.  In an early experiment
this model travelled four miles in twenty-three minutes.

But another airship, a true leviathan, had been growing into
stately and graceful proportions on the shores of the Bodenzee
in Wurtemberg, and was already on the eve of completion.  Count
Zeppelin, a lieut.-general in the German Army, who had seen
service in the Franco-German War, had for some years devoted
his fortune and energy to the practical study of aerial
navigation, and had prosecuted experiments on a large scale. 
Eventually, having formed a company with a large capital, he
was enabled to construct an airship which in size has been
compared to a British man-of-war.  Cigar-shaped, its length was
no less than 420 feet, and diameter 40 feet, while its weight
amounted to no more than 7,250 lbs.  The framework, which for
lightness had been made of aluminium, was, with the object of
preventing all the gas collecting at one end of its elongated
form, subdivided into seventeen compartments, each of these
compartments containing a completely fitted gas balloon, made
of oiled cotton and marvellously gas tight.  A steering
apparatus was placed both fore and aft, and at a safe distance
below the main structure were fixed, also forward and aft, on
aluminium platforms, two Daimler motor engines of 16-horse
power, working aluminium propellers of four blades at the rate
of 1,000 revolutions a minute.  Finally, firmly attached to the
inner framework by rods of aluminium, were two cars of the same
metal, furnished with buffer springs to break the force of a
fall.  The trial trip was not made till the summer
following--June, 1900--and, in the meanwhile, experiments had
gone forward with another mode of flight, terminating,
unhappily, in the death of one of the most expert and ingenious
of mechanical aeronauts.

Mr. Percy S.  Pilcher, now thirty-three years of age, having
received his early training in the Navy, retired from the
Service to become a civil engineer, and had been for some time
a partner in the firm of Wilson and Pilcher.  For four or five
years he had been experimenting in soaring flight, using a
Lilienthal machine, which he improved to suit his own methods. 
Among these was the device of rising off the ground by being
rapidly towed by a line against the wind.

At the end of September he gave an exhibition at Stamford Park
before Lord Bray and a select party of friends--this in spite
of an unsuitable afternoon of unsteady wind and occasional
showers.  A long towing line was provided, which, being passed
round pulley blocks and dragged by a couple of horses, was
capable of being hauled in at high speed.  The first trial,
though ending in an accident, was eminently satisfactory.  The
apparatus, running against the wind, had risen some distance,
when the line broke, yet the inventor descended slowly and
safely with outstretched wings.  The next trial also commenced
well, with an easy rise to a height of some thirty feet.  At
that point, however, the tail broke with a snap, and the
machine, pitching over, fell a complete wreck.  Mr. Pilcher was
found insensible, with his thigh broken, and though no other
serious injury was apparent, he succumbed two days afterwards
without recovering consciousness.  It was surmised that
shrinkage of the canvas of the tail, through getting wet, had
strained and broken its bamboo stretcher.

This autumn died Gaston Tissandier, at the age of fifty-six;
and in the month of December, at a ripe old age, while still in
full possession of intellectual vigour, Mr. Coxwell somewhat
suddenly passed away.  Always keenly interested in the progress
of aeronautics; he had but recently, in a letter to the
Standard, proposed a well-considered and practical method of
employing Montgolfier reconnoitring balloons, portable, readily
inflated, and especially suited to the war in South Africa. 
Perhaps the last letters of a private nature penned by Mr.
Coxwell were to the writer and his daughter, full of friendly
and valuable suggestion, and more particularly commenting on a
recent scientific aerial voyage, which proved to be not only
sensational, but established a record in English ballooning.

The great train of the November meteors, known as the Leonids,
which at regular periods of thirty-three years had in the past
encountered the earth's atmosphere, was due, and over-due.  The
cause of this, and of their finally eluding observation, need
only be very briefly touched on here.  The actual meteoric
train is known to travel in an elongated ellipse, the far end
of which lies near the confines of the solar system, while at a
point near the hither end the earth's orbit runs slantingly
athwart it, forming, as it were, a level crossing common to the
two orbits, the earth taking some five or six hours in transit. 
Calculation shows that the meteor train is to be expected at
this crossing every thirty-three and a third years, while the
train is extended to such an enormous length--taking more than
a year to draw clear--that the earth must needs encounter it
ere it gets by, possibly even two years running.  There could
be no absolute certainty about the exact year, nor the exact
night when the earth and the meteors would foregather, owing to
the uncertain disturbance which the latter must suffer from the
pull of the planetary bodies in the long journey out and home
again among them.  As is now known, this disturbing effect had
actually dispersed the train.

The shower, which was well seen in 1866, was pretty confidently
expected in 1899, and to guard against the mischance of cloudy
weather, it was arranged that the writer should, on behalf of
the Times newspaper, make an ascent on the right night to
secure observations.  Moreover, it was arranged that he should
have, as chief assistant, his own daughter, an enthusiastic
lady aeronaut, who had also taken part in previous astronomical
work.

Unfortunately there were two nights, those of November 14th and
15th, when the expected shower seemed equally probable, and,
taking counsel with the best authorities in the astronomical
world, it seemed that the only course to avoid disappointment
would be to have a balloon filled and moored in readiness for
an immediate start, either on the first night or on the second.

This settled the matter from the astronomical side, but there
was the aeronautical side also to be considered.  A balloon of
56,000 cubic feet capacity was the largest available for the
occasion, and a night ascent with three passengers and
instruments would need plenty of lifting power to meet chance
emergencies.  Thus it seemed that a possible delay of
forty-eight hours might entail a greater leakage of gas than
could be afforded.

The leakage might be expected chiefly to occur at the valve in
the head of the balloon, it being extremely difficult to render
any form of mechanical valve gas tight, however carefully its
joints be stopped with luting.  On this account, therefore, it
was determined that the balloon should be fitted with what is
known as a solid or rending valve, consisting simply of balloon
fabric tied hard and fast over the entire upper outlet, after
the fashion of a jam pot cover.  The outlet itself was a gaping
hole of over 2 feet across; but by the time its covering had
been carefully varnished over all leakage was sufficiently
prevented, the one drawback to this method being the fact that
the liberation of gas now admitted of no regulation.  Pulling
the valve line would simply mean opening the entire wide
aperture, which could in no way be closed again.

The management of such a valve consists in allowing the balloon
to sink spontaneously earthwards, and when it has settled near
the ground, having chosen a desirable landing place, to tear
open the so-called valve once and for all.

This expedient, dictated by necessity, seeming sufficient for
the purpose at hand, preparations were proceeded with, and,
under the management of Mr. Stanley Spencer, who agreed to act
as aeronaut, a large balloon, with solid valve, was brought
down to Newbury gas works on November 14th, and, being inflated
during the afternoon, was full and made snug by sundown.  But
as the meteor radiant would not be well above the horizon till
after midnight, the aeronautical party retired for refreshment,
and subsequently for rest, when, as the night wore on, it
became evident that, though the sky remained clear, there would
be no meteor display that night.  The next day was overcast,
and by nightfall hopelessly so, the clouds ever thickening,
with absence of wind or any indication which might give promise
of a change.  Thus by midnight it became impossible to tell
whether any display were in progress or not.  Under these
circumstances, it might have been difficult to decide when to
make the start with the best show of reason.  Clearly too early
a start could not subsequently be rectified; the balloon, once
off, could not come back again; while, once liberated, it would
be highly unwise for it to remain aloft and hidden by clouds
for more than some two hours, lest it should be carried out to
sea.

Happily the right decision under these circumstances was
perfectly clear.  Other things being equal, the best time would
be about 4 a.m., by which period the moon, then near the full,
would be getting low, and the two hours of darkness left would
afford the best seeing.  Leaving, then, an efficient outlook on
the balloon ground, the party enjoyed for some hours the
entertainment offered them by the Newbury Guildhall Club, and
at 4 a.m. taking their seats in the car, sailed up into the
calm chilly air of the November night.

But the chilliness did not last for long.  A height of 1,500
feet was read by the Davy lamp, and then we entered fog--warm,
wetting fog, through which the balloon would make no progress
in spite of a prodigal discharge of sand.  The fact was that
the balloon, which had become chilled through the night hours,
was gathering a great weight of moisture from condensation on
its surface, and when, at last, the whole depth of the cloud,
1,500 feet, had been penetrated, the chill of the upper air
crippled the balloon and sent her plunging down again into the
mist, necessitating yet further expenditure of sand, which by
this time had amounted to no less than 3 1/2 cwt. in twenty
minutes.  And then at last we reached our level, a region on
the upper margin of the cloud floor, where evaporation reduced
the temperature, that had recently been that of greenhouse
warmth, to intense cold.

That evaporation was going on around us on a gigantic scale was
made very manifest.  The surface of the vast cloud floor below
us was in a perfect turmoil, like that of a troubled sea.  If
the cloud surface could be compared to anything on earth it
most resembled sea where waves are running mountains high.  At
one moment we should be sailing over a trough, wide and deep
below us, the next a mighty billow would toss itself aloft and
vanish utterly into space.  Everywhere wreaths of mist with
ragged fringes were withering away into empty air, and, more
remarkable yet, was the conflict of wind which sent the cloud
wrack flying simply in all directions.

For two hours now there was opportunity for observing at
leisure all that could be made of the falling meteors.  There
were a few, and these, owing to our clear, elevated region,
were exceptionally bright.  The majority, too, were true
Leonids, issuing from the radiant point in the "Sickle," but
these were not more numerous than may be counted on that night
in any year, and served to emphasise the fact that no real
display was in progress.  The outlook was maintained, and
careful notes made for two hours, at the end of which time the
dawn began to break, the stars went in, and we were ready to
pack up and come down.

But the point was that we were not coming down.  We were at
that time, 6 a.m., 4,000 feet high, and it needs no pointing
out that at such an altitude it would have been madness to tear
open our huge rending valve, thus emptying the balloon of gas. 
It may also be unnecessary to point out that in an ordinary
afternoon ascent such a valve would be perfectly satisfactory,
for under these circumstances the sun presently must go down,
the air must grow chill, and the balloon must come earthward,
allowing of an easy descent until a safe and suitable
opportunity for rending the valve occurred; but now we knew
that conditions were reversed, and that the sun was just going
to rise.

And then it was we realised that we were caught in a trap. 
From that moment it was painfully evident that we were
powerless to act, and were at the mercy of circumstances.  By
this time the light was strong, and, being well above the
tossing billows of mist, we commanded an extended view on every
side, which revealed, however, only the upper unbroken surface
of the dense cloud canopy that lay over all the British Isles. 
We could only make a rough guess as to our probable locality. 
We knew that our course at starting lay towards the west, and
if we were maintaining that course a travel of scarcely more
than sixty miles would carry us out to the open sea.  We had
already been aloft for two hours, and as we were at an altitude
at which fast upper currents are commonly met with, it was high
time that, for safety, we should be coming down; yet it was
morally certain that it would be now many hours before our
balloon would commence to descend of its own accord by sheer
slow leakage of gas, by which time, beyond all reasonable
doubt, we must be carried far out over the Atlantic.  All we
could do was to listen intently for any sounds that might reach
us from earth, and assure us that we were still over the land;
and for a length of time such sounds were vouchsafed us--the
bark of a dog, the lowing of cattle, the ringing trot of a
horse on some hard road far down.

And then, as we were expecting, the sun climbed up into an
unsullied sky, and, mounting by leaps and bounds, we watched
the cloud floor receding beneath us.  The effect was extremely
beautiful.  A description written to the Times the next
morning, while the impression was still fresh, and from notes
made at this period, ran thus:--" Away to an infinitely distant
horizon stretched rolling billows of snowy whiteness, broken up
here and there into seeming icefields, with huge fantastic
hummocks.  Elsewhere domes and spires reared themselves above
the general surface, or an isolated Matterhorn towered into
space.  In some quarters it was impossible to look without the
conviction that we actually beheld the outline of lofty cliffs
overhanging a none too distant sea."  Shortly we began to hear
loud reports overhead, resembling small explosions, and we knew
what these were--the moist, shrunken netting was giving out
under the hot sun and yielding now and again with sudden
release to the rapidly expanding gas.  It was, therefore, with
grave concern, but with no surprise, that when we next turned
to the aneroid we found the index pointing to 9,000 feet, and
still moving upwards.

Hour after hour passed by, and, sounds having ceased to reach
us, it remains uncertain whether or no we were actually carried
out to sea and headed back again by contrary currents, an
experience with which aeronauts, including the writer, have
been familiar; but, at length, there was borne up to us the
distant sound of heavy hammers and of frequent trains, from
which we gathered that we were probably over Bristol, and it
was then that the thought occurred to my daughter that we might
possibly communicate with those below with a view to succour. 
This led to our writing the following message many times over
on blank telegraph forms and casting them down:-- "Urgent. 
Large balloon from Newbury travelling overhead above the
clouds.  Cannot descend.  Telegraph to sea coast (coast-guards)
to be ready to rescue.--Bacon and Spencer."

While thus occupied we caught the sound of waves, and the
shriek of a ship's siren.  We were crossing a reach of the
Severn, and most of our missives probably fell in the sea.  But
over the estuary there must have been a cold upper current
blowing, which crippled our balloon, for the aneroid presently
told of a fall of 2,000 feet.  It was now past noon, and to us
the turn of the tide was come.  Very slowly, and with strange
fluctuations, the balloon crept down till it reached and became
enveloped in the cloud below, and then the end was near.  The
actual descent occupied nearly two hours, and affords a curious
study in aerostation.  The details of the balloon's dying
struggles and of our own rough descent, entailing the fracture
of my daughter's arm, are told in another volume.*

We fell near Neath, Glamorganshire, only one and a half miles
short of the sea, completing a voyage which is a record in
English ballooning--ten hours from start to finish.

* "By Land and Sky," by the Author.



CHAPTER XXVI.  RECENT AERONAUTICAL EVENTS.


The first trial of the Zeppelin air ship was arranged to take
place on June 30th, 1900, a day which, from absence of wind,
was eminently well suited for the purpose; but the inflation
proved too slow a process, and operations were postponed to the
morrow.  The morrow, however, was somewhat windy, causing
delay, and by the time all was in readiness darkness had set in
and the start was once more postponed.  On the evening of the
third day the monster craft was skilfully and successfully
manoeuvred, and, rising with a very light wind, got fairly
away, carrying Count Zeppelin and four other persons in the two
cars.  Drifting with the wind, it attained a height of some 800
or 900 feet, at which point the steering apparatus being
brought into play it circled round and faced the wind, when it
remained stationary.  But not for long.  Shortly it began to
descend and, sinking gradually, gracefully, and in perfect
safety, in about nine minutes it reached and rested on the
water, when it was towed home.

A little later in the month, July, another trial was made, when
a wind was blowing estimated at sixteen miles an hour.  As on
the previous occasion, the direct influence of the sun was
avoided by waiting till evening hours.  It ascended at 8 p.m.,
and the engines getting to work it made a slow progress of
about two miles an hour against the wind for about 3 1/2 miles,
when one of the rudders gave way, and the machine was obliged
to descend.

On the evening of October 24th of the same year, in very calm
weather and with better hope, another ascent was made.  On this
occasion, however, success was frustrated by one of the rear
rudders getting foul of the gear, followed by the escape of gas
from one of the balloons.

Another and more successful trial took place in the same month,
again in calm atmosphere.  Inferior gas was employed, and it
would appear that the vessel had not sufficient buoyancy.  It
remained aloft for a period of twenty minutes, during which it
proved perfectly manageable, making a graceful journey out and
home, and returning close to its point of departure.  This
magnificent air ship, the result of twenty years of experiment,
has since been abandoned and broken up; yet the sacrifice has
not been without result.  Over and above the stimulus which
Count Zeppelin's great endeavour has given to the aeronautical
world, two special triumphs are his.  He has shown balloonists
how to make a perfectly gas-tight material, and has raised
powerful petroleum motors in a balloon with safety.

In the early part of 1900 it was announced that a member of the
Paris Aero Club, who at the time withheld his name (M. Deutsch)
offered a prize of 100,000 francs to the aeronaut who, either
in a balloon or flying machine, starting from the grounds of
the Aero Club at Longchamps, would make a journey round the
Eiffel Tower, returning to the starting place within half an
hour.  The donor would withdraw his prize if not won within
five years, and in the meanwhile would pay 4,000 francs
annually towards the encouragement of worthy experimenters.

It was from this time that flying machines in great variety and
goodly number began to be heard of, if not actually seen.  One
of the earliest to be announced in the Press was a machine
invented by the Russian, Feedoroff, and the Frenchman, Dupont. 
Dr. Danilewsky came forward with a flying machine combining
balloon and aeroplane, the steering of which would be worked
like a velocipede by the feet of the aeronaut.

Mr. P. Y. Alexander, of Bath, who had long been an enthusiastic
balloonist, and who had devoted a vast amount of pains,
originality, and engineering skill to the pursuit of
aeronautics, was at this time giving much attention to the
flying machine, and was, indeed, one of the assistants in the
first successful launching of the Zeppelin airship.  In concert
with Mr. W. G. Walker, A.M.I.C.E., Mr. Alexander carried out
some valuable and exhaustive experiments on the lifting power
of air propellers, 30 feet in diameter, driven by a portable
engine.  The results, which were of a purely technical nature,
have been embodied in a carefully compiled memoir.

An air ship now appeared, invented by M. Rose, consisting of
two elongated vessels filled with gas, and carrying the working
gear and car between them.  The machine was intentionally made
heavier than air, and was operated by a petrol motor of
12-horse power.

It was now that announcements began to be made to the effect
that, next to the Zeppelin air ship, M. Santos Dumont's balloon
was probably attracting most of the attention of experts.  The
account given of this air vessel] by the Daily Express was
somewhat startling.  The balloon proper was compared to a large
torpedo.  Three feet beneath this hangs the gasoline motor
which is to supply the power.  The propeller is 12 feet in
diameter, and is revolved so rapidly by the motor that the
engine frequently gets red hot.  The only accommodation for the
traveller is a little bicycle seat, from which the aeronaut
will direct his motor and steering gear by means of treadles. 
Then the inclination or declination of his machine must be
noted on the spirit level at his side, and the 200 odd pounds
of ballast must be regulated as the course requires.

A more detailed account of this navigable balloon was furnished
by a member of the Paris Aero Club.  From this authority we
learn that the capacity of the balloon was 10,700 cubic feet. 
It contained an inner balloon and an air fan, the function of
which was to maintain the shape of the balloon when meeting the
wind, and the whole was operated by a 10-horse power motor
capable of working the screw at 100 revolutions per minute.

But before the aerial exploits of Santos Dumont had become
famous, balloons had again claimed public attention.  On August
1st Captain Spelterini, with two companions, taking a balloon
and 180 cylinders of hydrogen to the top of the Rigi and
ascending thence, pursued a north-east course, across extensive
and beautiful tracts of icefield and mountain fastnesses
unvisited by men.  The descent, which was difficult and
critical, was happily manoeuvred.  This took place on the
Gnuetseven, a peak over 5,000 feet high, the plateau on which
the voyagers landed being described as only 50 yards square,
surrounded by precipices.

On the 10th of September following the writer was fortunate in
carrying out some wireless telegraphy experiments in a balloon,
the success of which is entirely due to the unrivalled skill of
Mr. Nevil Maskelyne, F.R.A.S., and to his clever adaptation of
the special apparatus of his own invention to the exigencies of
a free balloon.  The occasion was the garden party at the
Bradford meeting of the British Association, Admiral Sir Edmund
Fremantle taking part in the voyage, with Mr. Percival Spencer
in charge.  The experiment was to include the firing of a mine
in the grounds two minutes after the balloon had left, and this
item was entirely successful.  The main idea was to attempt to
establish communication between a base and a free balloon
retreating through space at a height beyond practicable gun
shot.  The wind was fast and squally, and the unavoidable rough
jolting which the car received at the start put the
transmitting instrument out of action.  The messages, however,
which were sent from the grounds at Lister Park were received
and watched by the occupants of the car up to a distance of
twenty miles, at which point the voyage terminated.

On September 30th, and also on October 9th, of this year, took
place two principal balloon races from Vincennes in connection
with the Paris Exposition.  In the first race, among those who
competed were M. Jacques Faure, the Count de la Vaulx, and M.
Jacques Balsan.  The Count was the winner, reaching Wocawek, in
Russian Poland, a travel of 706 miles, in 21 hours 34 minutes. 
M. Balsan was second, descending near Dantzig in East Prussia,
757 miles, in 22 hours.  M. Jacques Faure reached Mamlitz, in
East Prussia, a distance of 753 miles.

In the final race the Count de la Vaulx made a record voyage of
1,193 miles, reaching Korosticheff, in Russia, in 35 hours 45
minutes, attaining a maximum altitude of 18,810 feet.  M. J.
Balsan reached a greater height, namely, 21,582 feet,
travelling to Rodom, in Russia, a distance of 843 miles, in 27
hours 25 minutes.

Some phenomenal altitudes were attained at this time.  In
September, 1898, Dr. Berson, of Berlin, ascended from the
Crystal Palace in a balloon inflated with hydrogen, under the
management of Mr. Stanley Spencer, oxygen being an essential
part of the equipment.  The start was made at 5 p.m., and the
balloon at first drifted south-east, out over the mouth of the
Thames, until at an altitude of 10,000 feet an upper current
changed the course to southwest, the balloon mounting rapidly
till 23,000 feet was reached, at which height the coast of
France was plainly seen.  At 25,000 feet both voyagers were
gasping, and compelled to inhale oxygen.  At 27,500 feet, only
four bags of ballast being left, the descent was commenced, and
a safe landing was effected at Romford.

Subsequently Dr.  Berson, in company with Dr. Suring, ascending
from Berlin, attained an altitude of 34,000 feet.  At 30,000
feet the aeronauts were inhaling oxygen, and before reaching
their highest point both had for a considerable time remained
unconscious.

In 1901 a new aeroplane flying machine began to attract
attention, the invention of Herr Kress.  A novel feature of the
machine was a device to render it of avail for Arctic travel. 
In shape it might be compared to an iceboat with two keels and
a long stem, the keels being adapted to run on ice or snow,
while the boat would float on water.  Power was to be derived
from a petrol motor.

At the same period M. Henry Sutor was busy on Lake Constance
with an air ship designed also to float on water.  Then Mr.
Buchanan followed with a fish-shaped vessel, one of the most
important specialities of which consisted in side propellers,
the surfaces of which were roughened with minute diagonal
grooves to effect a greater grip on the air.

No less original was the air ship, 100 feet long, and carrying
18,000 cubic feet of gas, which Mr. W. Beedle was engaged upon. 
In this machine, besides the propellers for controlling the
horizontal motion, there was one to regulate vertical motion,
with a view of obviating expenditure of gas or ballast.

But by this time M. Santos Dumont, pursuing his hobby with
unparalleled perseverance, had built in succession no less than
six air ships, meeting with no mean success, profiting by every
lesson taught by failures, and making light of all accidents,
great or small.  On July 15th, 1901, he made a famous try for
the Deutsch prize in a cigar-shaped balloon, 110 feet long,
19,000 cubic feet capacity, carrying a Daimler oil motor of
15-horse power.  The day was not favourable, but, starting from
the Parc d'Aerostation, he was abreast of the Eiffel Tower in
thirteen minutes, circling round which, and battling against a
head wind, he reached the grounds of the Aero Club in 41
minutes from the start, or 11 minutes late by the conditions of
the prize.  A cylinder had broken down, and the balance of the
vessel had become upset.

Within a fortnight--July 29th--in favourable weather, he made
another flight, lasting fifteen minutes, at the end of which he
had returned to his starting ground.  Then on August 8th a more
momentous attempt came off.  Sailing up with a rapid ascent,
and flying with the wind, Santos Dumont covered the distance to
the Tower in five minutes only, and gracefully swung round;
but, immediately after, the wind played havoc, slowing down the
motor, at the same time damaging the balloon, and causing an
escape of gas.  On this Santos Dumont, ascending higher into
the sky, quitted the car, and climbed along the keel to
inspect, and, if possible, rectify the motor, but with little
success.  The balloon was emptying, and the machine pitched
badly, till a further rent occurred, when it commenced falling
hopelessly and with a speed momentarily increasing.

Slanting over a roof, the balloon caught a chimney and tore
asunder; but the wreck, also catching, held fast, while the car
hung helplessly down a blank wall.  In this perilous
predicament great coolness and agility alone averted disaster,
till firemen were able to come to the rescue.

The air ship was damaged beyond repair, but by September 6th
another was completed, and on trial appeared to work well
until, while travelling at speed, it was brought up and badly
strained by the trail rope catching in trees.

Early in the next month the young Brazilian was aloft again,
with weather conditions entirely in his favour; but again
certain minor mishaps prevented his next struggle for the
prize, which did not take place till the 19th.  On this day a
light cross wind was blowing, not sufficient, however,
seriously to influence the first stage of the time race, and
the outward journey was accomplished with a direct flight in
nine minutes.  On rounding the tower, however, the wind began
to tell prejudicially, and the propeller became deranged.  On
this, letting his vessel fall off from the wind, Santos Dumont
crawled along the framework till he reached the motor, which he
succeeded in again setting in working order, though not without
a delay of several minutes and some loss of ground.  From that
point the return journey was accomplished in eight minutes, and
the race was, at the time, declared lost by 40 seconds only.

The most important and novel feature in the air ships
constructed by Santos Dumont was the internal ballonet,
inflated automatically by a ventilator, the expedient being
designed to preserve the shape of the main balloon itself while
meeting the wind.  On the whole, it answered well, and took the
place of the heavy wire cage used by Zeppelin.

M. de Fonvielle, commenting on the achievements of Santos
Dumont, wrote:--"It does not appear that he has navigated his
balloon against more than very light winds, but in his
machinery he has shown such attention to detail that it may
reasonably be expected that if he continues to increase his
motive power he will, ere long, exceed past performances."

Mr. Chanute has a further word to say about the possibility of
making balloons navigable.  He considers that their size will
have to be great to the verge of impracticability and the power
of the motor enormous in proportion to its weight.  As to
flying machines, properly so called, he calculates the best
that has been done to be the sustaining of from 27 lbs. to 55
lbs. per horse power by impact upon the air.  But Mr. Chanute
also argues that the equilibrium is of prime importance, and on
this point there could scarcely be a greater authority.  No one
of living men has given more attention to the problem of
"soaring," and it is stated that he has had about a thousand
"slides" made by assistants, with different types of machine,
and all without the slightest accident.

Many other aerial vessels might be mentioned.  Mr. T. H.
Bastin, of Clapham, has been engaged for many years on a
machine which should imitate bird flight as nearly as this may
be practicable.

Baron Bradsky aims at a navigable balloon on an ambitious
scale.  M. Tatin is another candidate for the Deutsch prize. 
Of Dr. Barton's air ship more is looked for, as being designed
for the War Office.  It is understood that the official
requirements demand a machine which, while capable of
transporting a man through the air at a speed of 13 miles an
hour, can remain fully inflated for 48 hours.  One of the most
sanguine, as well as enterprising, imitators of Santos Dumont
was a fellow countryman, Auguste Severo.  Of his machine during
construction little could be gathered, and still less seen,
from the fact that the various parts were being manufactured at
different workshops, but it was known to be of large size and
to be fitted with powerful motors.  This was an ill-fated
vessel.  At an early hour on May 12th of this year, 1902, all
Paris was startled by a report that M. Severo and his
assistant, M. Sachet had been killed while making a trial
excursion.  It appears that at daybreak it had been decided
that the favourable moment for trial had arrived.  The
machinery was got ready, and with little delay the air vessel
was dismissed and rose quietly and steadily into the calm sky. 
The Daily Mail gives the following account of what ensued:--

"For the first few minutes all went well, and the motor seemed
to be working satisfactorily.  The air ship answered the helm
readily, and admiring exclamations rose from the crowd.... But
as the vessel rose higher she was seen to fall off from the
wind, while the aeronauts could be seen vainly endeavouring to
keep her head on.  Then M. Severo commenced throwing out
ballast.... All this time the ship was gradually soaring higher
and higher until, just  as it was over the Montparnasse
Cemetery, at the height of 2,000 feet, a sheet of flame was
seen to shoot up from one of the motors, and instantly the
immense silk envelope containing 9,000 cubicfeet of hydrogen
was enveloped in leaping tongues of fire.... As soon as the
flames came in contact with the gas a tremendous explosion
followed, and in an instant all that was left of the air ship
fell to the earth."  Both aeronauts were dashed to pieces.  It
was thought that the fatality was caused through faulty
construction, the escape valve for the gas being situated only
about nine feet from the motor.  It was announced by Count de
la Vaulx that during the summer of 1901 he would attempt to
cross the Mediterranean by a balloon, provisioned for three
weeks, maintaining communication with the coast during his
voyage by wireless telegraphy and other methods of signalling. 
He was to make use of the "Herve Deviator," or steering
apparatus, which may be described as a series of cupshaped
plates dipping in the water at the end of a trail rope.  By
means of controlling cords worked from the car, the whole
series of plates could be turned at an angle to the direction
of the wind, by which the balloon's course would be altered. 
Count de la Vaulx attempted this grand journey on October 12th,
starting from Toulon with the intention of reaching Algiers,
taking the precaution, however, of having a cruiser in
attendance.  When fifty miles out from Marseilles a passing
steamer received from the balloon the signal, "All's well"; but
the wind had veered round to the east, and, remaining
persistently in this quarter, the Count abandoned his venture,
and, signalling to the cruiser, succeeded in alighting on her
deck, not, however, before he had completed the splendid and
record voyage of 41 hours' duration.



CHAPTER XXVII.  THE POSSIBILITIES OF BALLOONS IN WARFARE.


Clearly the time has not yet arrived when the flying machine
will be serviceable in war.  Yet we are not without those
theorisers who, at the present moment, would seriously propose
schemes for conveying dynamite and other explosives by air
ship, or dropping them over hostile forces or fortresses, or
even fleets at sea.  They go yet further, and gravely discuss
the point whether such warfare would be legitimate.  We,
however, may say at once, emphatically, that any such scheme is
simply impracticable.  It must be abundantly evident that, so
far, no form of dirigible air ship exists which could be relied
on to carry out any required manoeuvre in such atmospheric
conditions as generally prevail.  If, even in calm and
favourable weather, more often than not motors break down, or
gear carries away, what hope is there for any aerial craft
which would attempt to battle with such wind currents as
commonly blow aloft?

And when we turn to the balloon proper, are chances greatly
improved?  The eminently practical aeronaut, John Wise, as was
told in Chapter XII., prepared a scheme for the reduction of
Vera Cruz by the agency of a balloon.  Let us glance at it.  A
single balloon was to suffice, measuring 100 feet in diameter,
and capable of raising in the gross 30,000 lbs.  To manoeuvre
this monstrous engine he calculates he would require a cable
five miles long, by means of which he hoped, in some manner, to
work his way directly over the fortress, and to remain poised
at that point at the height of a mile in the sky.  Once granted
that he could arrive and maintain himself at that position, the
throwing out of combustibles would be simple, though even then
the spot where they would alight after the drop of a mile would
be by no means certain.  It is also obvious that a vast amount
of gas would have to be sacrificed to compensate for the
prodigal discharge of ballast in the form of missiles.

The idea of manoeuvring a balloon in a wind, and poising it in
the manner suggested, is, of course, preposterous; and when one
considers the attempt to aim bombs from a moving balloon high
in air the case becomes yet more absurd.  Any such missile
would partake of the motion of the balloon itself, and it would
be impossible to tell where it would strike the earth.

To give an example which is often enough tried in balloon
travel when the ground below is clear.  A glass bottle
(presumably empty) is cast overboard and its fall watched.  It
is seen not to be left behind, but to keep pace with the
balloon, shrinking gradually to an object  too small to be
discerned, except when every now and then a ray of sunlight
reflected off it reveals it for a moment as it continues to
plunge downwards.  After a very few seconds the impression is
that it is about to reach the earth, and the eye forms a guess
at some spot which it will strike; but the spot is quickly
passed, and the bottle travels far beyond across a field, over
the further fence, and vastly further yet; indeed, inasmuch as
to fall a mile in air a heavy body may take over twenty
seconds--and twenty seconds is long to those who watch--it is
often impossible to tell to two or three fields where it will
finally settle.

All this while the risk that a balloon would run of being
riddled by bullets, shrapnel, or pom-poms has not been taken
into account, and as to the estimate of this risk there is some
difference of opinion.  The balloon corps and the artillery
apparently approach the question with different bias.  On the
one hand, it is stated with perfect truth that a free balloon,
which is generally either rising or falling, as well as moving
across country, is a hard object to hit, and a marksman would
only strike it with a chance or blundering shot; but, on the
other hand let us take the following report of three years ago.

The German artillery had been testing the efficiency of a
quick-firing gun when used against a balloon, and they decided
that the latter would have no chance of escape except at night. 
A German kite-balloon was kept moving at an altitude of 600
metres, and the guns trained upon it were distant 3,000 metres. 
It was then stated that after the third discharge of the rapid
firing battery the range was found, when all was at once over
with the balloon; for, not only was it hit with every
discharge, but it was presently set on fire and annihilated.

But, in any case, the antique mode of keeping a balloon moored
at any spot as a post of observation must be abandoned in
modern warfare.  Major Baden-Powell, speaking from personal
experience in South Africa, has shown how dangerous, or else
how useless, such a form of reconnaissance has become.  "I
remember," he says, "at the battle of Magersfontein my company
was lying down in extended order towards the left of our line. 
We were perfectly safe from musketry fire, as we lay, perhaps,
two miles from the Boer trenches, which were being shelled by
some of our guns close by.  The enemy's artillery was
practically silent.  Presently, on looking round, I descried
our balloon away out behind us about two miles off.  Then she
steadily rose and made several trips to a good height, but what
could be seen from that distance?  When a large number of our
troops were ranged up within 800 yards of the trenches, and
many more at all points behind them, what useful information
could be obtained by means of the balloon four miles off?"

The same eminent authority insists on the necessity of an
observing war balloon making short ascents.  The balloon, in
his opinion, should be allowed to ascend rapidly to its full
height, and with as little delay as possible be hauled down
again.  Under these conditions it may then be well worth
testing whether the primitive form of balloon, the Montgolfier,
might not be the most valuable.  Instead of being made, as the
war balloon is now, of fragile material, and filled with costly
gas difficult to procure, and which has to be conveyed in heavy
and cumbersome cylinders, a hot air balloon could be rapidly
carried by hand anywhere where a few men could push their way. 
It is of strong material, readily mended if torn, and could be
inflated for short ascents, if not by mere brush wood, then by
a portable blast furnace and petroleum.

But there is a further use for balloons in warfare not yet
exploited.  The Siege of Paris showed the utility of free
balloons, and occasions arise when their use might be still
further extended.  The writer pointed out that it might have
been very possible for an aeronaut of experience, by choosing
the right weather and the right position along the British
lines, to have skilfully manoeuvred a free balloon by means of
upper currents, so as to convey all-important intelligence to
besieged Mafeking, and he proved that it would have sufficed if
the balloon could have been "tacked" across the sky to within
some fifteen miles of the desired goal.

The mode of signalling which he proposed was by means of a
"collapsing drum," an instrument of occasional use in the Navy. 
A modification of this instrument, as employed by the writer,
consisted of a light, spherical, drum-shaped frame of large
size, which, when covered with dark material and hung in the
clear below the car of a lofty balloon, could be well seen
either against blue sky or grey at a great distance.  The
so-called drum could, by a very simple contrivance, readily
worked from the car, be made to collapse into a very
inconspicuous object, and thus be capable of displaying Morse
Code signals.  A long pause with the drum extended--like the
long wave of a signalling flag--would denote a "dash," and a
short pause a "dot," and these motions would be at once
intelligible to anyone acquainted with the now universal Morse
Code system.

Provided with an apparatus of the kind, the writer made an
ascent from Newbury at a time when the military camps were
lying on Salisbury Plain at a distance of nearly twenty miles
to the south-west.  The ground wind up to 2,500 feet on
starting was nearly due north, and would have defeated the
attempt; again, the air stream blowing above that height was
nearly due east, which again would have proved unsuitable.  But
it was manifestly possible to utilise the two currents, and
with good luck to zig-zag one's course so as to come within
easy signalling distance of the various camps; and, as a matter
of fact, we actually passed immediately over Bulford Camp, with
which we exchanged signals, while two other camps lay close to
right and left of us.  Fortune favouring us, we had actually
hit our mark, though it would have been sufficient for the
experiment had our course lain within ten miles right or left.

Yet a further use for the balloon in warfare remains untried in
this country.  Acting under the advice of experts in the
Service, the writer, in the early part of the present year,
suggested to the Admiralty the desirability of experimenting
with balloons as a means of detecting submarine engines of war. 
It is well known that reefs and shoals can generally be seen
from a cliff or mast head far more clearly than from the deck
or other position near the surface of the water.  Would not,
then, a balloon, if skilfully manoeuvred, serve as a valuable
post of observation?  The Admiralty, in acknowledging the
communication, promised to give the matter their attention; but
by the month of June the Press had announcements of how the
self-same experiments had been successfully carried through by
French authorities, while a few days later the Admiralty wrote,
"For the present no need is seen for the use of a captive
balloon to detect submarines."

Among many and varied ballooning incidents which have occurred
to the writer, there are some which may not unprofitably be
compared with certain experiences already recorded of other
aeronauts.  Thunderstorms, as witnessed from a balloon, have
already been casually described, and it may reasonably be hoped
that the observations which have, under varying circumstances,
been made at high altitudes may throw some additional light on
this familiar, though somewhat perplexing, phenomenon.

To begin with, it seems a moot point whether a balloon caught
in a thunderstorm is, or is not, in any special danger of being
struck.  It has been argued that immunity under such
circumstances must depend upon whether a sufficiently long time
has elapsed since the balloon left the earth to allow of its
becoming positively electrified by induction from the clouds or
by rain falling upon its surface.  But there are many other
points to be considered.  There is the constant escape of gas
from the mouth; there is the mass of pointed metal in the
anchor; and, again, it is conceivable that a balloon rapidly
descending out of a thunderstorm might carry with it a charge
residing on its moistened surface which might manifest itself
disastrously as the balloon reached the earth.

Instances seem to have been not infrequent of balloons
encountering thunderstorms; but, unfortunately, in most cases
the observers have not had any scientific training, or the
accounts which are to hand are those of the type of journalist
who is chiefly in quest of sensational copy.

Thus there is an account from America of a Professor King who
made an ascent from Burlington, Iowa, just as a thunderstorm
was approaching, with the result that, instead of scudding away
with the wind before the storm, he was actually, as if by some
attraction, drawn into it.  On this his aim was to pierce
through the cloud above, and then follows a description which
it is hard to realise:--"There came down in front of him, and
apparently not more than 50 feet distant, a grand discharge of
electricity."  Then he feels the car lifted, the gas suddenly
expands to overflowing, and the balloon is hurled through the
cloud with inconceivable velocity, this happening several
times, with tremendous oscillations of the car, until the
balloon is borne to earth in a torrent of rain.  We fancy that
many practical balloonists will hardly endorse this
description.

But we have another, relating to one of the most distinguished
aeronauts, M. Eugene Godard, who, in an ascent with local
journalists, was caught in a thunderstorm.  Here we are
told--presumably by the journalists--that "twice the lightning
flashed within a few yards of the terror-stricken crew."

Once again, in an ascent at Derby, a spectator writes:--"The
lightning played upon the sphere of the balloon, lighting it up
and making things visible through it."  This, however, one must
suppose, can hardly apply to the balloon when liberated.

But a graphic description of a very different character given
in the "Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society"
for January, 1901, is of real value.  It appears that three
lieutenants of the Prussian Balloon Corps took charge of a
balloon that ascended at Berlin, and, when at a height of 2,300
feet, became enveloped in the mist, through which only
occasional glimpses of earth were seen.  At this point a sharp,
crackling sound was heard at the ring, like the sparking of a
huge electrical machine, and, looking up, the voyagers beheld
sparks apparently some half-inch thick, and over two feet in
length, playing from the ring.  Thunder was heard, but--and
this may have significance--only before and after the above
phenomenon.

Another instructive experience is recorded of the younger Green
in an ascent which he made from Frankfort-on-the-Maine.  On
this occasion he relates that he encountered a thunderstorm,
and at a height of 4,400 feet found himself at the level where
the storm clouds were discharging themselves in a deluge.  He
seems to have had no difficulty in ascending through the storm
into the clear sky above, where a breeze from another quarter
quickly carried him away from the storm centre.

This co-existence, or conflict of opposite currents, is held to
be the common characteristic, if not the main cause, of
thunderstorms, and tallies with the following personal
experience.  It was in typical July weather of 1900 that the
writer and his son, accompanied by Admiral Sir Edmund Fremantle
and Mr. Percival Spencer, made an evening ascent from Newbury. 
It had been a day of storms, but about 5 p.m., after what
appeared to be a clearing shower, the sky brightened, and we
sailed up into a cloudless heaven.  The wind, at 3,000 feet,
was travelling at some thirty miles an hour, and ere the
distance of ten miles had been covered a formidable thunder
pack was seen approaching and coming up dead against the wind. 
Nothing could be more evident than that the balloon was
travelling rapidly with a lower wind, while the storm was being
borne equally rapidly on an upper and diametrically opposite
current.  It proved one of the most severe thunderstorms
remembered in the country.  It brooded for five hours over
Devizes, a few miles ahead.  A homestead on our right was
struck and burned to the ground, while on our left two soldiers
were killed on Salisbury Plain.  The sky immediately overhead
was, of course, hidden by the large globe of the balloon, but
around and beneath us the storm seemed to gather in a blue grey
mist, which quickly broadened and deepened till, almost before
we could realise it, we found ourselves in the very heart of
the storm, the lightning playing all around us, and the sharp
hail stinging our faces.

The countrymen below described the balloon as apparently
enveloped by the lightning, but with ourselves, though the
flashes were incessant, and on all sides, the reverberations of
the thunder were not remarkable, being rather brief explosions
in which they resembled the thunder claps not infrequently
described by travellers on mountain heights.

The balloon was now descending from a double cause: the weight
of moisture suddenly accurnulated on its surface, and the very
obvious downrush of cold air that accompanied the storm of
pelting hail.  With a very limited store of ballast, it seemed
impossible to make a further ascent, nor was this desirable. 
The signalling experiments on which we were intent could not be
carried on in such weather.  The only course was to descend,
and though this was not at once practicable, owing to Savernake
Forest being beneath us, we effected a safe landing in the
first available  clearing.

As has been mentioned, Mr. Glaisher and other observers have
recorded several remarkable instances of opposite wind currents
being met with at moderate altitudes.  None, however, can have
been more noteworthy or surprising than the following
experience Of the writer on Whit Monday of 1899.  The ascent
was under an overcast sky, from the Crystal Palace at 3 p.m.,
at which hour a cold drizzle was settling in with a moderate
breeze from the east.  Thus, starting from the usual filling
ground near the north tower, the balloon sailed over the body
of the Palace, and thence over the suburbs towards the west
till lost in the mist.  We then ascended through 1,500 feet of
dense, wetting cloud, and, emerging in bright sunshine,
continued to drift for two hours at an average altitude of some
3,000 feet; 1,000 feet below us was the ill-defined, ever
changing upper surface of the dense cloud floor, and it was no
longer possible to determine our course, which we therefore
assumed to have remained unchanged.  At length, however, as a
measure of prudence, we determined to descend through the
clouds sufficiently to learn something of our whereabouts,
which we reasonably expected to be somewhere in Surrey or
Berks.  On emerging, however, below the cloud, the first object
that loomed out of the mist irnmediately below us was a cargo
vessel, in the rigging of which our trail rope was entangling
itself.  Only by degrees the fact dawned upon us that we were
in the estuary of the Thames, and beating up towards London
once again with an cast wind.  Thus it became evident that at
the higher level, unknown to ourselves, we had been headed back
on our course, for two hours, by a wind diametrically opposed
to that blowing on the ground.

Two recent developments of the hot-air war balloon suggest
great possibilities in the near future.  One takes the form of
a small captive, carrying aloft a photographic camera directed
and operated electrically from the ground.  The other is a
self-contained passenger balloon of large dimensions, carrying
in complete safety a special petroleum burner of great power. 
These new and important departures are mainly due to the
mechanical genius of Mr. J. N. Maskelyne, who has patented and
perfected them in conjunction with the writer.



CHAPTER XXVIII.  THE CONSTITUTION OF THE AIR.


Some fair idea of the conditions prevailing in the upper air
may have been gathered from the many and various observations
already recorded.  Stating the case broadly, we may assert that
the same atmospheric changes with which we are familiar at the
level of the earth are to be found also at all accessible
heights, equally extensive and equally sudden.

Standing on an open heath on a gusty day, we may often note the
rhythmic buffeting of the wind, resembling the assault of
rolling billows of air.  The evidence of these billows has been
actually traced far aloft in balloon travel, when aeronauts,
looking down on a wind-swept surface of cloud, have observed
this surface to be thrown into a series of rolls of vapour,
which were but vast and veritable waves of air.  The interval
between successive crests of these waves has on one occasion
been estimated at approximately half a mile.  We have seen how
these air streams sometimes hold wide and independent sway at
different levels.  We have seen, too, how they sometimes meet
and mingle, not infrequently attended with electrical
disturbance

Through broad drifts of air minor air streams would seem often
literally to "thread" their way, breakng up into filaments or
wandering rills of air.  In the voyage across Salisbury Plain
lately described, while the balloon was being carried with the
more sluggish current, a number of small parachutes were dropped
out at frequent intervals and carefully watched.  These would
commonly attend the balloon for a little while, until, getting
into some minor air stream, they would suddenly and rapidly
diverge at such wide angles as to suggest that crossing our
actual course there were side paths, down which the smaller
bodies became wafted.

On another occasion the writer met with strongly marked and
altogether exceptional evidence of the vehemence and
persistence of these minor aerial streamlets.  It was on an
occasion in April weather, when a heavy overcast sky blotted
out the upper heavens.  In the cloud levels the wind was
somewhat sluggish, and for an hour we travelled at an average
speed of a little over twenty miles an hour, never higher than
3,000 feet.  At this point, while flying over Hertfordshire, we
threw out sufficient ballast to cause the balloon to rise clear
of the hazy lower air, and coming under the full influence of
the sun, then in the meridian, we shot upwards at considerable
speed, and soon attained an altitude of three miles.  But for a
considerable portion of this climb--while, in fact, we were
ascending through little less than a mile of our upward
course--we were assailed by impetuous cross currents, which
whistled through car and rigging and smote us fairly on the
cheek.  It was altogether a novel experience, and the more
remarkable from the fact that our main onward course was not
appreciably diverted.

Then we got above these currents, and remained at our maximum
level, while we floated, still at only a moderate speed, the
length of a county.  The descent then began, and once again,
while we dropped through the same  disturbed region, the same
far-reaching and obtrusive cross-current assailed us.  It was
quite obvious that the vehement currents were too slender to
tell largely upon the huge surface of the balloon, as it was
being swept steadily onwards by the main wind, which never
varied in direction from ground levels up to the greatest
height attained.

This experience is but confirmation of the story of the wind
told by the wind gauges on the Forth Bridge.  Here the maximum
pressure measured on the large gauge of 300 square feet is
commonly considerably less than that on the smaller gauge,
suggesting that the latter must be due to threads of air of
limited area and high velocity.

Further and very valuable light is thrown on the peculiar ways
of the wind, now being considered, by Professor Langley in the
special researches of his to which reference has already been
made.  This eminent observer and mathematician, suspecting that
the old-fashioned instruments, which only told what the wind
had been doing every hour, or at best every minute, gave but a
most imperfect record, constructed delicate gauges, which would
respond to every impulse and give readings from second to
second.

In this way he established the fact that the wind, far from
being a body of even approximate uniformity, is under most
ordinary conditions irregular almost beyond conception. 
Further, that the greater the speed the greater the
fluctuations, so that a high wind has to be regarded as "air
moving in a tumultuous mass," the velocity at one moment
perhaps forty miles an hour, then diminishing to an almost
instantaneous calm, and then resuming."  In fact, in the very
nature of the case, wind is not the result of one simple cause,
but of an infinite number of impulses and changes, perhaps long
passed, which are preserved in it, and which die only slowly
away."

When we come to take observations of temperature we find the
conditions in the atmosphere above us to be at first sight not
a little complex, and altogether different in day and night
hours.  From observations already recorded in this
volume--notably those of Gay Lussac, Welsh, and Glaisher--it
has been made to appear that, in ascending into the sky in
daytime, the temperature usually falls according to a general
law; but there are found regions where the fall of temperature
becomes arrested, such regions being commonly, though by no
means invariably, associated with visible cloud.  It is
probable, however, that it would be more correct not to
interpret the presence of cloud as causing manifestation of
cold, but rather to regard the meeting of warm and cold
currents as the cause of cloud.

The writer has experimented in the upper regions with a special
form of air thermometer of great sensibility, designed to
respond rapidly to slight variations of temperature.  Testing
this instrument on one occasion in a room of equable warmth,
and without draughts, he was puzzled by seeing the index in a
capillary tube suddenly mounting rapidly, due to some cause
which was not apparent, till it was noticed that the parlour
cat, attracted by the proceedings, had approached near the
apparatus.  The behaviour of this instrument when slung in the
clear some distance over the side of the balloon car, and
carefully watched, suggests by its fitful, sudden, and rapid
changes that warmer currents are often making their way in such
slender wandering rills as have been already pictured as
permeating the broader air streams.  During night hours
conditions are reversed.  The warmer air radiated off the earth
through the day has then ascended.  It will be found at
different heights, lying in pools or strata, possibly
resembling in form, could they be seen, masses of visible
cloud.

The writer has gathered from night voyages instructive and
suggestive facts with reference to the ascent of air streams,
due to differences of temperature, particularly over London and
the suburbs, and it is conceivable that in such ascending
streams may lie a means of dealing successfully with
visitations of smoke and fog.

One lesson taught by balloon travel has been that fog or haze
will come or go in obedience to temperature variations at low
levels.  Thus thick haze has lain over London, more
particularly over the lower parts, at sundown.  Then through
night hours, as the temperature of the lower air has become
equalised, the haze has completely disappeared, but only to
reassert itself at dawn.

A description of the very impressive experience of a night sail
over London has been reserved, but should not be altogether
omitted.  Glaisher, writing of the spectacle as he observed it
nearly forty years ago, describes London seen at night from a
balloon at a distance as resembling a vast conflagration.  When
actually over the town, a main thoroughfare like the Commercial
Road shone up like a line of brilliant fire; but, travelling
westward, Oxford Street presented an appearance which puzzled
him.  "Here the two thickly studded rows of brilliant lights
were seen on either side of the street, with a narrow, dark
space between, and this dark space was bounded, as it were, on
both sides by a bright fringe like frosted silver."  Presently
he discovered that  this rich effect was caused by the bright
illumination of the shop lights on the pavements."

London, as seen from a balloon on a clear moonlight night in
August a year ago (1901), wore a somewhat altered appearance. 
There were the fairy lamps tracing out the streets, which,
though dark centred, wore their silver lining; but in irregular
patches a whiter light from electric arc lamps broadened and
brightened and shone out like some pyrotechnic display above
the black housetops.  Through the vast town ran a blank, black
channel, the river, winding on into distance, crossed here and
there by bridges showing as bright bands, and with bright spots
occasionally to mark where lay the river craft.  But what was
most striking was the silence.  Though the noise of London
traffic as heard from a balloon has diminished of late years
owing to the better paving, yet in day hours the roar of the
streets is heard up to a great height as a hard, harsh,
grinding din.  But at night, after the last 'bus has ceased to
ply, and before the market carts begin lumbering in, the
balloonist, as he sails over the town, might imagine that he
was traversing a City of the Dead.

It is at such times that a shout through a speaking trumpet has
a most startling effect, and more particularly a blast on a
horn.  In this case after an interval of some seconds a wild
note will be flung back from the house-tops below, answered and
re-answered on all sides as it echoes from roof to roof--a
wild, weird uproar that awakes suddenly, and then dies out
slowly far away.

Experiments with echoes from a balloon have proved instructive. 
If, when riding at a height, say, of 2,000 feet, a charge of
gun-cotton be fired electrically 100 feet below the car, the
report, though really as loud as a cannon, sounds no more than
a mere pistol shot, possibly partly owing to the greater rarity
of the air, but chiefly because the sound, having no background
to reflect it, simply spends itself in the air.  Then, always
and under all conditions of atmosphere soever, there ensues
absolute silence until the time for the echo back from earth
has fully elapsed, when a deafening outburst of thunder rises
from below, rolling on often for more than half a minute.  Two
noteworthy facts, at least, the writer has established from a
very large number of trials: first, that the theory of aerial
echoes thrown back from empty space, which physicists have held
to exist constantly, and to be part of the cause of thunder,
will have to be abandoned; and, secondly, that from some cause
yet to be fully explained the echo back from the earth is
always behind its time.

But balloons have revealed further suggestive facts with regard
to sound, and more particularly with regard to the varying
acoustic properties of the air.  It is a familiar experience
how distant sounds will come and go, rising and falling, often
being wafted over extraordinary distances, and again failing
altogether, or sometimes being lost at near range, but
appearing in strength further away.  A free balloon, moving in
the profound silence of the upper air, becomes an admirable
sound observatory.  It may be clearly detected that in certain
conditions of atmosphere, at least, there are what may be
conceived to be aerial sound channels, through which sounds are
,momentarily conveyed with abnormal intensity.  This phenomenon
does but serve to give an intelligible presentment of the
unseen conditions existing in the realm of air.

It would be reasonable to suppose that were an eye so
constituted as to be able to see, say, cumulus masses of warmer
air, strata mottled with traces of other gases, and beds of
invisible matter in suspension, one might suppose that what we
deem the clearest sky would then appear flecked with forms as
many and various as the clouds that adorn our summer heavens.

But there is matter in suspension in the atmosphere which is
very far from invisible, and which in the case of large towns
is very commonly lying in thick strata overhead, stopping back
the sunlight, and forming the nucleus round which noisome fogs
may form.  Experimenting with suitable apparatus, the writer
has found on a still afternoon in May, at 2,000 feet above
Kingston in Surrey, that the air was charged far more heavily
with dust than that of the London streets the next day; and,
again, at half a mile above the city in the month of August
last dust, much of it being of a gross and even fibrous nature,
was far more abundant than on grass enclosures in the town
during the forenoon of the day following.

An attempt has been made to include England in a series of
international balloon ascents arranged expressly for the
purpose of taking simultaneous observations at a large number
of stations over Europe, by which means it is hoped that much
fresh knowledge will be forthcoming with respect to the
constitution of the atmosphere up to the highest levels
accessible by balloons manned and unmanned.  It is very much to
be regretted that in the case of England the attempt here
spoken of has rested entirely on private enterprise.  First and
foremost in personal liberality and the work of organisation
must be mentioned Mr. P. Y. Alexander, whose zeal in the
progress of aeronautics is second to none in this country. 
Twice through his efforts England has been represented in the
important work for which Continental nations have no difficulty
in obtaining public grants.  The first occasion was on November
8th, 1900, when the writer was privileged to occupy a seat in
the balloon furnished by Mr. Alexander, and equipped with the
most modern type of instruments.  It was a stormy and fast
voyage from the Crystal Palace to Halstead, in Essex, 48 miles
in 40 minutes.  Simultaneously with this, Mr. Alexander
dismissed an unmanned balloon from Bath, which ascended 8,000
feet, and landed at Cricklade.  Other balloons which took part
in the combined experiment were two from Paris, three from
Chalais Meudon, three from Strasburg, two from Vienna, two from
Berlin, and two from St. Petersburg.

The section of our countrymen specially interested in
aeronautics--a growing community--is represented by the
Aeronautical Society, formed in 1865, with the Duke of Argyll
for president, and for thirty years under the most energetic
management of Mr. F. W. Brearey, succeeding whom as hon. secs. 
have been Major Baden-Powell and Mr. Eric S. Bruce.  Mr.
Brearey was one of the most successful inventors of flying
models.  Mr. Chanute, speaking as President of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, paid him a high and well-deserved
compliment in saying that it was through his influence that
aerial navigation had been cleared of much rubbish and placed
upon a scientific and firm basis.

Another community devoting itself to the pursuit of balloon
trips and matters aeronautical generally is the newly-formed
Aero Club, of whom one of the most prominent and energetic
members is the Hon. C. S. Rolls.

It had been announced that M. Santos-Dumont would bring an air
ship to England, and during the summer of the present year
would give exhibitions of its capability.  It was even rumoured
that he might circle round St. Paul's and accomplish other
aerial feats unknown in England.  The promise was fulfilled so
far as bringing the air ship to England was concerned, for one
of his vessels which had seen service was deposited at the
Crystal Palace.  In some mysterious manner, however, never
sufficiently made clear to the public, this machine was one
morning found damaged, and M. Santos-Dumont has withdrawn from
his proposed engagements.

In thus doing he left the field open to one of our own
countrymen, who, in his first attempt at flight with an air
ship of his own invention and construction, has proved himself
no unworthy rival of the wealthy young Brazilian.

Mr. Stanley Spencer, in a very brief space of time, designed
and built completely in the workshops of the firm an elongated
motor balloon, 75 feet long by 20 feet diameter, worked by a
screw and petrol motor.  This motor is placed in the prow, 25
feet away from, and in front of, the safety valve, by which
precaution any danger of igniting the escaping gas is avoided. 
Should, however, a collapse of the machine arise from any
cause, there is an arrangement for throwing the balloon into
the form of a parachute.  Further, there is provided means for
admitting air at will into the balloon, by which the necessity
for much ballast is obviated.

Mr. Spencer having filled the balloon with pure hydrogen, made
his first trial with this machine late in an evening at the end
of June.  The performance of the vessel is thus described in
the Westminster Gazette:--"The huge balloon filled slowly, so
that the light was rapidly failing when at last the doors of
the big shed slid open and the ship was brought carefully out,
her motor started, and her maiden voyage commenced.  With Mr.
Stanley Spencer in the car, she sailed gracefully down the
football field, wheeled round in a circle--a small circle,
too--and for perhaps a quarter of an hour sailed a tortuous
course over the heads of a small but enthusiastic crowd of
spectators.  The ship was handicapped to some extent by the
fact that in their anxiety to make the trial the aeronauts had
not waited to inflate it fully, but still it did its work well,
answered its helm readily, showed no signs of rolling, and, in
short, appeared to give entire satisfaction to everybody
concerned--so much so, indeed, that Mr. Stanley Spencer
informed the crowd after the ascent that he was quite ready to
take up any challenge that M. Santos Dumont might throw down."
Within a few weeks of this his first success Mr. Spencer was
able to prove to the world that he had only claimed for his
machine what its powers fully justified.  On a still September
afternoon, ascending alone, he steered his aerial ship in an
easy and graceful flight over London, from the Crystal Palace
to Harrow.



CHAPTER XXIX.  CONCLUSION.


The future development of aerostation is necessarily difficult
to forecast.  Having reviewed its history from its inception we
have to allow that the balloon in itself, as an instrument of
aerial locomotion, remains practically only where it was 120
years ago.  Nor, in the nature of the case, is this to be
wondered at.  The wind, which alone guides the balloon, is
beyond man's control, while, as a source of lifting power, a
lighter and therefore more suitable gas than hydrogen is not to
be found in nature.

It is, however, conceivable that a superior mode of inflation
may yet be discovered.  Now that the liquefaction of gases has
become an accomplished fact, it seems almost theoretically
possible that a balloonist may presently be able to provide
himself with an unlimited reserve of potential energy so as to
be fitted for travel of indefinite duration.  Endowed with
increased powers of this nature, the aeronaut could utilise a
balloon for voyages of discovery over regions of the earth
which bar man's progress by any other mode of travel.  A future
Andree, provided with a means of maintaining his gas supply for
six weeks, need have no hesitation in laying his course towards
the North Pole, being confident that the winds must ultimately
waft him to some safe haven.  He could, indeed, well afford,
having reached the Pole, to descend and build his cairn, or
even to stop a week, if he so desired, before continuing on his
way.

But it may fairly be claimed for the balloon, even as it now
is, that a great and important future is open to it as a means
for exploring inaccessible country.  It may, indeed, be urged
that Andree's task was, in the very nature of the case, well
nigh impracticable, and his unfortunate miscarriage will be
used as argument against such a method of exploration.  But it
must always be remembered that in Andree's case the rigours of
climate which he was compelled to face were the most serious of
all obstacles to balloon travel.  The extreme cold would not
only cause constant shrinkage of the gas, but would entail the
deposition of a weight of moisture, if not of snow, upon the
surface of the balloon, which must greatly shorten its life.

It would be entirely otherwise if the country it were sought to
explore were in lower latitudes, in Australia, or within the
vast unknown belt of earth lying nearer the equator.  The
writer's scheme for exploring the wholly unknown regions of
Arabia is already before the public.  The fact, thought to be
established by the most experienced aeronauts of old times, and
already referred to in these pages, that at some height a
strong west wind is to be found blowing with great constancy
all round the globe, is in accordance with the view entertained
by modern meteorologists.  Such a wind, too, may be expected to
be a fairly fast wind, the calculation being that, as a general
rule, the velocity of currents increases from the ground at the
rate of about three miles per hour for each thousand feet of
height; thus the chance of a balloon drifting speedily across
the breadth of Arabia is a strong one, and, regarded in this
light, the distance to be traversed is certainly not excessive,
being probably well within the lasting power of such a balloon
as that employed by Andree.  If, for the sake of gas supply,
Aden were chosen for the starting ground, then 1,200 miles
E.N.E. would carry the voyager to Muscat; 1,100 miles N.E. by
E. would land him at Sohar; while some 800 miles would suffice
to take him to the seaboard if his course lay N.E.  It must
also be borne in mind that the Arabian sun by day, and the heat
radiated off the desert by night, would be all in favour of the
buoyancy of the balloon.

But there are other persistent winds that, for purposes of
exploration, would prove equally serviceable and sure.  From
time immemorial the dweller on the Nile has been led to regard
his river in the light of a benignant deity.  If he wished to
travel down its course he had but to entrust his vessel to the
stream, and this would carry him.  If, again, he wished to
retrace his course, he had but to raise a sail, and the
prevalent wind, conquering the flood, would bear him against
the stream.  This constant north wind, following the Nile
valley, and thence trending still southward towards Uganda, has
been regarded as a means to hand well adapted for the
exploration of important unsurveyed country by balloon.  This
scheme has been conceived and elaborated by Major B.F.S. 
Baden-Powell, and, so far, the only apparent obstacle in the
way has proved the lack of necessary funds.

It will be urged, however, that for purposes of exploration
some form of dirigible balloon is desirable, and we have
already had proof that where it is not sought to combat winds
strongly opposed to their course such air ships as
Santos-Dumont or Messrs. Spencer have already constructed
acquit themselves well; and it requires no stretch of
imagination to conceive that before the present century is
closed many great gaps in the map of the world will have been
filled in by aerial survey.

But, leaving the balloon to its proper function, we turn to the
flying machine properly so called with more sanguine hopes of
seeing the real conquest of the air achieved.  It was as it
were but yesterday when the air ship, unhampered by huge globes
of gas, and controlled by mechanical means alone, was first
fairly tried, yet it is already considered by those best able
to judge that its ultimate success is assured.

This success rests now solely in the hands of the mechanical
engineer.  He must, and surely can, build the ship of such
strength that some essential part does not at the critical
moment break down or carry away.  He may have to improve his
motive power, and here, again, we do not doubt his cunning. 
Motor engines, self-contained and burning liquid fuel, are yet
in their infancy, and the extraordinary emulation now existing
in their production puts it beyond doubt that every year will
see rapid improvement in their efficiency.

We do not expect, nor do we desire, that the world may see the
fulfilment of the poet's dream, "Argosies of magic sails" or
"Airy navies grappling in the central blue."  We would not
befog our vision of the future with any wild imaginings,
seeking, as some have done, to see in the electricity or other
hidden power of heaven the means for its subjugation by man;
but it is far from unreasonable to hope that but a little while
shall pass, and we shall have more perfect and reliable
knowledge of the tides and currents in the vast ocean of air,
and when that day may have come then it may be claimed that the
grand problem of aerial navigation will be already solved.





End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Dominion of the Air:
The Story of Aerial Navigation by J. M. Bacon